Notes for Rhetoric and Ethics — Unit 2

Nature of Rhetoric

  • Everyday contexts where rhetoric appears: political rhetoric (politicians, local elections), protests advocating for social justice and social change, advertising on television, print ads, radio commercials.
  • Aristotle’s definition: rhetoric is the faculty of observing the available means of persuasion. He divides rhetoric into two facets:
    • the rhetorical art: uses symbols to induce cooperation; example visual symbols that work together to draw us in (the presenter mentioned that three emblems together cooperate, e.g., cross imagery).
    • the rhetorical artifact: the discourse whose intent and function is to persuade; the message itself, the ends, and the perspective embedded in the discourse. Rhetoric is found in commercials, art, and artifacts (e.g., Mayhem, Old Spice, and other commercials).
  • Activity prompt: take out your phone and scan the QR code to analyze what the rhetorical art vs. the rhetorical artifact is in those commercials; discuss responses on the discussion board.
  • Rhetoric from a public speaking perspective: reference to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the "I Have a Dream" speech. Consider:
    • What is the rhetorical art in the statement "I have a dream"?
    • What is the rhetorical artifact? What historical zeitgeist (context) surrounded the speech?
    • The word "dream" as the art; the ends include ending segregation, promoting a just, equal society.

Central characteristics of rhetoric

  • Rhetoric is fourfold: advisory, addressed, situational, and stylized.
    • Advisory: rhetoric provides advice for decision-making, influencing behaviors and attitudes; carries inherent value judgments about what is being said.
    • Addressed: rhetoric targets a specific audience; asks who is being advised and who benefits; consider who is being addressed in the Carl’s Jr. ad example.
    • Situational: rhetoric arises in response to a problem or need; it is triggered by a situation (e.g., traffic news addressing Newport area/PCH; a newscaster guiding behavior).
    • Stylized: rhetoric is grounded in creative, active choices—what is said, what is left unsaid, and how it is said; involves the speaker’s style and performative choices.
  • The concept of rhetorical style involves both art and artifact coming together; metaphor:
    • “feeding two birds with one seed” describes how art and artifact align to persuade.
  • Rhetoric serves several purposes:
    • Uphold truth and justice; truth and justice are stronger than their opposites; if truth is compromised, audiences may not be persuaded, which reflects on the speaker’s effectiveness.
    • In the legal system, instances of wrongful conviction highlight Aristotle’s and the Sophists’ view: if truth loses, the audience is not persuaded; the speaker bears responsibility for effective rhetoric.
    • Aids teaching: public speaking is audience-centered; to ensure understanding, the speaker uses diverse examples, numbers, statistics, narratives, and points of view.
    • Encourages examination of multiple sides: rhetoric fosters consideration of opposing views; relates to argumentation and debate theory (net sport analogy): burden of proof (the side that asserts must prove), burden of refutation (responding to the opposition), and rejoinder (answering the answer).
    • Self-defense: Aristotle argues for using rhetoric to defend one’s point of view and actions.

Net sport analogy and argumentation concepts

  • Burden of proof: the side that asserts must prove the claim.
  • Burden of refutation: the responsibility to respond to the opposing side’s assertion.
  • Rejoinder: the act of answering the answer; the ongoing back-and-forth in argumentation and debate.

Ethical communication: arguer metaphors (arguers as lovers)

  • Introduction: Wayne Brockriede (Cal State Fullerton) proposed the metaphor of arguers as lovers to describe ethical communication; Dr. Pierre Marston (Cal State Northridge) expanded this with three additional metaphors. These metaphors illustrate ethical vs. unethical communication dynamics.
  • Metaphors:
    • Rhetorical rape: the speaker dominates, coercing the listener to agree; uses authority („Because I said so”) to compel assent.
    • Rhetorical seducer: a charmer who may misuse evidence, employ false reasoning, or lie to close a deal; can target audiences like voters, homeowners, clients, partners.
    • Rhetorical lover: argues cooperatively; open to superior arguments; risks criticism and seeks consensus through mutual reasoning.
    • Rhetorical masturbation: self-focused rhetoric; talks primarily about oneself and one’s beliefs; overshares; avoids other topics; a speaker who repeats self-referential points.
    • Rhetorical prostitute: yields or consents to a claim for instrumental purpose; may reveal hidden agendas; alignment with the ends justifies the means (yielding for a payoff).
    • Rhetorical nymphomaniac: engages in ongoing disagreement; values argument for its own sake; prolongs conflict rather than resolving it; argues to keep the dispute alive.
  • Example reference: George H. W. Bush’s famous pledge “Read my lips: no new taxes” followed by tax policy changes; used to illustrate the seducer’s risk of deception or manipulation.

Ethical guidelines for speaking (four major guidelines, with five key components discussed)

  • The slide states there are four major guidelines, but five components are described:
    • Goals should be ethically sound: audience’s intrinsic value should be respected; treat people as ends in themselves, not as means.
    • Be fully prepared: topic selection, practice, and accuracy; speakers have ethical obligations to be truthful and cite sources; facts matter.
    • Avoid name-calling and abusive language: avoid defaming individuals or groups and avoid sexist language.
    • Avoid ethnocentrism: avoid the belief that one’s race, color, creed, sex, or gender is superior to others.
    • Plagiarism: watch for ethical use of others’ work; three types discussed:
    • Global plagiarism: copying an entire work.
    • Patchwork plagiarism: stitching together bits from two or three sources without proper attribution.
    • Incremental plagiarism: failing to credit smaller parts or ideas.

Practical takeaways and connections

  • Real-world relevance: rhetoric shapes political messaging, advertising, protests, and everyday communication; ethical considerations guard against manipulation and promote fair discourse.
  • Preparation for exams: remember Aristotle’s dichotomy (art vs. artifact), the four characteristics (advisory, addressed, situational, stylized), the benefits (truth/justice, teaching, multi-sideness, self-defense), the burden/response structure in argumentation, and the ethical metaphors for communicative conduct.
  • Key terms to remember (LaTeX notation for counts):
    • Two facets of rhetoric: 2 (art, artifact)
    • Three emblems mentioned in the cross example: 3 emblems
    • Four major ethical guidelines (as listed): 4 (noting a five-item detailed list follows)
    • Three types of plagiarism: 3 types (global, patchwork, incremental)

Conclusion and next steps

  • Acknowledge the interplay between rhetoric and ethics in public speaking and everyday communication.
  • Next unit preview: Basic Concepts of Public Speaking.