Comprehensive Notes: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology (Modules 1.1–1.22)

Module 1.1: Using your textbook effectively is key to your success

• Anatomy — structure; Physiology — function
• Structure determines function
• Biology — the study of life
• Illustrations are especially important

Module 1.1: Review

• A. What is human A&P?
• B. Define the term biology.
• Learning Outcome: Briefly describe the difference between anatomy and physiology.

Module 1.2: Comprehending the art is essential to understanding A&P

• Integrate information in art and words for success
• Eye-tracking research shows learning/comprehension levels are greater for students who studied art and text together
• Art and text go hand in hand

Module 1.2: Text-art integration

• Text-art integration — no page flipping or hunting for illustration associated with text
• Text and art are combined, with key text in the art itself

Module 1.2: Review

• A. What do eye-tracking studies tell us about the most effective way to learn?
• B. Try this experiment: Pick one of the two examples, cover up the text, and focus solely on the art. What did you discover?
• Learning Outcome: Describe how to use the text and art together to master learning.

Module 1.3: Break down the art in step-wise fashion to learn the topic

• Tasks become easier when broken down
• Start with the key
• With figures with steps, begin with step 1 and follow numerical order

Module 1.3: Break down the art

• Read left-to-right, column-by-column
• Every new one- or two-page module starts with a title
• Look for numbered red blocks
• Read the text and study the image
• Answer review questions
• Move on to next numbered red block
• At completion of the module, answer the integration questions

Module 1.3: Review

• A. Calculate the area in blue. All numbers are in centimeters (cm).
• Learning Outcome: Explain how to approach complex concepts with multiple parts.

Module 1.4: Orient yourself to all art in the same way

• Anatomical position:
  • Standing erect, face forward (anteriorly), arms at side, palms anterior facing
  • Lying face up in supine position
• Find point of reference and put yourself in position of images
• In this text, all body cross sections are from same perspective
• Read as if standing at the feet of a person who is in supine position, looking up toward the head

Module 1.4: Review

• A. Look at the woman standing. On which wrist is her bracelet found?
• B. What is the structure marked with an X in the MRI scan?
• Learning Outcome: Describe the anatomical position and how you should view sectional images.

Module 1.5: Learning Outcomes correspond to modules and what you should be able to do after completing chapter

• Module — independent, self-contained unit about a specific topic
• Section — set of modules placed in a series that are interdependent
• Learning Outcomes — educational objectives that use key verbs to target knowledge, comprehension, and specific skills
• Learning classification scheme — identifies fundamental levels of learning, from lower-order thinking to higher-order skills
• Read the text, study the image, and pay attention to Learning Outcomes for success

Module 1.5: Review

• A. Define module, and state where the Learning Outcomes appear.
• B. Describe learning classification scheme.
• Learning Outcome: Explain the significance of learning outcomes in acquiring knowledge and skills.

Section 2: A&P in Perspective

• Learning Outcomes:
  • 1.6 Describe homeostasis, and identify basic study skill strategies to use in this course.
  • 1.7 Describe the common characteristics of life and the basic processes in humans and other animals.
  • 1.8 Define anatomy and physiology, and describe macroscopic and microscopic anatomy.
  • 1.9 Explain the relationship between structure and function.

Module 1.6: Focused study is important for learning anatomy and physiology

• Basic approach: “What is the structure, and how does it work?”
• “Black Box” concept: you may know what something does but not how
• One of the most important concepts: Homeostasis
• Homeostasis — a relatively stable internal environment

Module 1.6: Review

• A. What do scientists mean by the term “Black Box”?
• B. Identify several strategies for success in this course.
• Learning Outcome: Describe homeostasis, and identify basic study skill strategies to use in this course.

Module 1.7: Organisms share common characteristics and processes

• Characteristics of all living things (list):
  • 1) Composed of cells
  • 2) Complex structural arrangement
  • 3) Detect and respond to stimuli
  • 4) Maintain a relatively stable internal environment
  • 5) Grow (increase in size) and develop (natural maturation)
  • 6) Offspring are produced by reproduction
  • 7) Have metabolism — anabolic (building up) and catabolic (breaking down)
• Processes of life (examples):
  • Respiration — oxygen required for chemical processes; CO₂ removed by cardiovascular system
  • Digestion — mechanical and chemical processing of ingested food
  • Circulation — internal movement and distribution of oxygen, wastes, and digestion products
  • Excretion — elimination of undigested food and metabolic wastes

Module 1.7: Review

• A. List the common characteristics shared by all living things.
• B. Distinguish between growth and development.
• C. Describe the basic processes in humans and other animals.
• Learning Outcome: Describe the common characteristics of life and the basic processes in humans and other animals.

Module 1.8: Anatomy is the study of structure

• Anatomy means “a cutting open”; study of structures and relationships among body parts
• Gross (macroscopic) anatomy — large structures visible to the unaided eye

Module 1.8: Microscopic anatomy

• Study of structures not visible without magnification
• Dissecting microscope — can see tissues
• Light microscope — basic cell structure
• Electron microscope — individual molecules

Module 1.8: Physiology is the study of function

• Physiology — study of function and how organisms perform vital functions
• Focuses on functional properties; topics can be electrical events within the heart coordinating heartbeat and pressure changes

Module 1.8: Review

• A. What are the differences between gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy?
• B. Explain the link between anatomy and physiology.
• Learning Outcome: Define anatomy and physiology, and describe macroscopic and microscopic anatomy.

Module 1.9: Structure and function are interrelated

• Theory: Physiology and anatomy are closely interrelated; one cannot be fully understood without the other
• Anatomical details affect function; physiological mechanisms are understood in terms of underlying structural relationships

Module 1.9: Examples of interrelationship

• Elbow joint as an interrelationship example: functions like a hinge; movement in one plane; structures impose functional limits
• Chemical level example: chemical messengers and cellular receptors; receptors recognize only if messenger fits receptor
• Living systems are subject to laws of physics and chemistry; e.g., William Harvey demonstrated heart valves work on the same principles as valves in coal mine water pumps

Module 1.9: Review

• A. Compare the functioning of the elbow joint with a door on a hinge.
• B. Predict what would happen to the function of a structure if its anatomy were altered.
• C. What features are common to forearm movement at an elbow joint and the opening of a cell membrane passageway?
• Learning Outcome: Explain the relationship between structure and function.

Section 3: Levels of Organization

• Learning Outcomes:
  • 1.10 Describe the various levels of organization in the human body.
  • 1.11 Describe various types of cells in the human body, and explain the basic principles of the cell theory.
  • 1.12 Define histology, and explain the interrelationships among the various types of tissues.
  • 1.13 Identify the 11 organ systems of the human body, and describe the major functions of each.
  • 1.14 Describe the major organs of the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems, and briefly describe their functions.
  • 1.15 Describe the major organs of the endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, and respiratory systems, and briefly describe their functions.
  • 1.16 Describe the major organs of the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and briefly describe their functions.

Module 1.10: The human body has multiple interdependent levels of organization

• Levels of organization: chemical level (atoms → molecules) with shape determining properties
• Cellular level: cells are the smallest living units; organelles within cells
• Tissue level: tissues are groups of cells performing specific functions; four primary tissue types
• Organ level: organs composed of two or more tissues
• Organ system level: 11 organ systems functioning together
• Organism level: the whole body

Module 1.10: Interdependent levels of organization (Chemical and Cellular)

• Chemical level: Atoms combine to form molecules; functional properties depend on shape and components
• Cellular level: Cells are the smallest living units; organelles have specific functions (e.g., mitochondrion provides energy for heart muscle cell contraction)

Module 1.10: Interdependent levels of organization (Tissue to Organism)

• Tissue level: A tissue is a group of cells working together to perform specific functions; example: cardiac muscle tissue
• Organ level: An organ is composed of two or more tissues working together; example: layers of cardiac muscle and connective tissue form the heart
• Organ system level: Organ systems consist of interacting organs; example: cardiovascular system
• Organism level: A collection of organ systems maintaining life and health

Module 1.10: Review

• A. Name the simplest level of organization that includes the smallest living units in the body.
• B. Define organ.
• C. Our understanding of how the human body works is based on knowledge of which level(s) of organization?
• Learning Outcome: Describe the various levels of organization in the human body.

Module 1.11: Cells are the smallest units of life

• Free-living cells; multicellular organisms; humans contain trillions of cells; estimated ~200 different cell types; sizes in micrometers
• Cells vary greatly in size; e.g., muscle cells, RBCs, bone cells, fat cells, digestive tract lining, nerve cells
• Cell theory: foundation of modern biology

Module 1.11: Cell function and structure

• Cell function is related to structure: examples include smooth muscle cells (long and slender), red blood cells (flattened discs), bone cells (maintain bone), fat cells (spherical for storage), absorbing cells, oocytes, neurons with extensive branching

Module 1.11: Cell theory and cooperation

• Cells work together; life depends on cells working together; each cell responds to the local environment, yet cells in different parts of the body are coordinated

Module 1.11: Review

• A. Name and define the unit used to measure cell size.
• B. List the three basic principles of the cell theory.
• C. A red blood cell has a diameter of about
  $8 ext{ µm}$. Use that information to estimate the diameter of the oocyte in micrometers (µm) and millimeters (mm). (1 mm = 1000 µm)
• Learning Outcome: Describe various types of cells in the human body, and explain the basic principles of the cell theory.

Module 1.12: Tissues are specialized groups of cells and cell products

• Tissues are collections of similar cells and cell products that perform specific functions
• Histology (histos, tissue) is the study of tissues
• Four primary tissue types: 1) Epithelial 2) Connective 3) Muscle 4) Nervous

Module 1.12: Epithelial tissue

• Most common; forms a barrier with specific properties
• Covers every exposed body surface; lines digestive, respiratory, reproductive, urinary tracts
• Surrounds internal cavities (e.g., chest cavity); lines inner surfaces of blood vessels and heart; produces glandular secretions

Module 1.12: Connective tissue

• Diverse in appearance; all forms contain cells surrounded by extracellular matrix
• Matrix composed of: protein fibers and ground substance (liquid)
• Matrix amount/consistency varies by tissue type (e.g., Blood — watery matrix; Bone — crystallized matrix with little ground substance)

Module 1.12: Muscle tissue

• Ability to contract forcefully
• Major functions: skeletal movement; soft tissue support; maintenance of blood flow; movement of materials internally; stabilization of body temperature
• Three types: 1) Skeletal 2) Cardiac 3) Smooth
• Skeletal — attached to skeleton; moves or stabilizes the position of skeleton or internal organs
• Cardiac — found only in the heart; propels blood through vessels
• Smooth — in vessel walls and along various tracts

Module 1.12: Nervous tissue

• Specialized to carry information within the body
• Two basic cell types: 1) Neurons — transmit information via electrical impulses 2) Neuroglia — support neurons and form a supporting framework
• Neural tissue locations:
  • Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord
  • Peripheral nervous system (PNS): nerves connecting CNS with other tissues and organs

Module 1.12: Review

• A. Describe the general roles of the different types of muscle tissue.
• B. Identify the four primary tissue types, and explain the functions of each.
• Learning Outcome: Define histology and explain the interrelationships among the various types of tissues.

Module 1.13: Organs and organ systems perform vital functions

• Organ: functional unit composed of more than one tissue type; function determined by the specific combination and organization of tissues within it
• Example: an organ with a flattened shape could function well in protection (skin); a three-dimensional organ could house other structures (liver)
• Organ system: consists of interacting organs; eleven organ systems; none function in isolation; all are interdependent

Module 1.13: The heart example

• The heart has cardiac muscle, epithelial tissue, connective tissue, and neural tissue, all working together as a pump

Module 1.13: Organ systems and interdependence

• There are 11 organ systems; none function in isolation; all interdependent

Module 1.13: Review

• A. Which two organ systems are involved with circulation within the body?
• B. Using the table as a reference, describe how falling down a flight of stairs could affect at least six of the organ systems.
• Learning Outcome: Identify the 11 organ systems of the human body, and describe the major functions of each.

Module 1.14: Organs of the integumentary, skeletal, and muscular systems support and move the body

• Integumentary system: protects the body from environmental hazards; helps control body temperature
• Skeletal system: provides support; protects tissues; stores minerals; forms blood cells

Module 1.14: Organ systems (part 1)

• Muscular system: produces movement; provides support; generates heat
• Nervous system: provides rapid control and regulation; coordinates activities of other organ systems

Module 1.14: Review

• A. How would a nervous system disorder affect the muscular system?
• Learning Outcome: Describe the major organs of the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems, and briefly describe their functions.

Module 1.15: Organ systems (part 2)

• Endocrine system: secretes chemical messengers; directs long-term changes in other systems
• Cardiovascular system: transports cells and dissolved materials to all parts of the body

Module 1.15: Endocrine, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, and Respiratory

• Endocrine system; Cardiovascular system; Lymphatic system; Respiratory system

Module 1.15: Review

• A. How would a respiratory system disease affect the cardiovascular system?
• Learning Outcome: Describe the major organs of the endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, and respiratory systems, and briefly describe their functions.

Module 1.16: Organ systems (part 3)

• Digestive system: processes food and absorbs nutrients
• Urinary system: eliminates excess water, salts, and wastes
• Reproductive system: produces sex cells and hormones; supports embryonic development (female only)

Module 1.16: Organ systems (continued)

• Digestive system; Urinary system; Reproductive system

Module 1.16: Review

• A. How would a reproductive system disorder affect the urinary system?
• Learning Objective: Describe the major organs of the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and briefly describe their functions.

Section 4: Homeostasis

• Learning Outcomes: 1.17 Describe the mechanisms of homeostatic regulation; 1.18 Discuss the roles of negative feedback and positive feedback in maintaining homeostasis

Module 1.17: Homeostatic regulation relies on a receptor, a control center, and an effector

• Definition of homeostasis: presence of a stable internal environment; failure leads to illness or death
• Homeostatic regulation: physiological adjustments to preserve homeostasis in variable environments
• Components of a homeostatic regulatory mechanism:
  • Receptor (sensor) — sensitive to environmental change
  • Control center (integration center) — processes information and sends commands
  • Effector — responds to commands and opposes the stimulus

Module 1.17: Homeostatic regulation (visual aids)

• SmartArt Video: Homeostatic regulation, negative and positive feedback

Module 1.17: Homeostatic regulation nuances

• Homeostatic control is not precise; maintains a normal range around the set point; actual value oscillates (example: thermostat set at 72°F; actual temp varies a few degrees around that set point)

Module 1.18: Negative feedback provides stability

• Negative feedback: stimulus triggers a response that changes the environment at the receptor; effector opposes or negates the original stimulus; minimizes change; primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation; dynamic set points vary with environment and activity

Module 1.18: Negative vs positive feedback in context

• Example: temperature regulation via negative feedback
• Positive feedback: accelerates a process to completion; exaggerates the original change; tends to produce extreme responses; not homeostatic
• Positive feedback loop: escalating cycle; occurs when a dangerous or stressful process must complete quickly
• Blood clotting is a classic example of positive feedback

Module 1.18: Review

• A. Explain the function of negative feedback systems, and give an example of homeostatic regulation by negative feedback in the body.
• B. Why is positive feedback helpful in blood clotting but unsuitable for regulating body temperature?
• Learning Outcome: Discuss the roles of negative feedback and positive feedback in maintaining homeostasis.

Section 4: Anatomical Terms

• Learning Outcomes: 1.19 Describe the history of anatomical terminology; 1.20 Use correct anatomical terms to describe superficial and regional anatomy; 1.21 Use correct directional terms and sectional planes to describe relative positions and relationships among body parts; 1.22 Identify the major body cavities of the trunk and the subdivisions of each.

Module 1.19: Anatomical terms have a long and varied history

• Orientation to the body: landmarks create a map for orientation
• Anatomy uses a specialized language, largely Latin or Greek; vocabulary continues to expand

Module 1.19: Anatomical terms: eponyms

• Some eponyms persist; many are replaced by more precise terms

Module 1.19: History of anatomical studies

• Bologna: Mondino dei Liuzzi; Padua: Vesalius; De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543) as early model for modern anatomy education

Module 1.19: Review

• A. Which languages are the source of many modern anatomical terms?
• B. Define the word eponym.
• C. In what country was cadaver-based anatomy established as a discipline studied by medical professionals?
• Learning Outcome: Describe the history of anatomical terminology.

Module 1.20: Superficial anatomy and regional anatomy indicate locations on or in the body

• Anatomical position is the body: standing, hands at sides, palms facing forward, feet together and facing forward
• Additional standard positions: eyes forward; lying supine (face up); prone (face down)

Module 1.20: Review

• A. Describe the anatomical position.
• B. A massage therapist often begins a massage by asking clients to lie face down with their arms at their sides. Which anatomical term describes that position?
• C. Contrast descriptions used by clinicians and anatomists when referring to positions of injuries or internal organs of the abdomen and pelvis.
• D. What is the purpose of anatomical terms?
• Learning Outcome: Use correct anatomical terms to describe superficial and regional anatomy.

Module 1.21: Directional terms and sectional planes describe specific points of reference

• Directional terms: relative to anatomical position; anterior/ventral; posterior/dorsal; superficial (near surface); deep (toward interior)
• Sectional views: used to show relationships in 3D; imaging (CT/MRI) and slides; views can change along structure

Module 1.21: Review

• A. In the anatomical position, describe an anterior view and a posterior view.
• B. What type of section would separate (1) the two eyes? (2) the nose and two ears? (3) the neck and navel?
• C. What is the purpose of directional and sectional terms?
• Learning Outcome: Use correct directional terms and sectional planes to describe relative positions and relationships among body parts.

Module 1.22: Body cavities protect internal organs and allow them to change shape

• Interior of the body is subdivided into regions established by the body wall; organs suspended in closed fluid-filled chambers called body cavities; functions: protect organs from shocks and impacts; permit changes in size and shape
• Viscera: internal organs partially or totally enclosed by body cavities; connected to rest of body
• Pericardial cavity around the heart; Pericardium — serous membrane lining the pericardial cavity; secretes watery fluid to keep surfaces moist and reduce friction; permits heart to change size and shape while beating

Module 1.22: Body cavities (cont.)

• Thoracic cavity: everything deep to the chest; subdivisions: two pleural cavities (lungs) and mediastinum (connective tissue and pericardial cavity with heart)
• Abdominopelvic cavity: everything deep to abdominal and pelvic walls; divided into abdominal cavity (digestive glands/organs) and pelvic cavity (urinary bladder, reproductive organs, distal digestive tract)
• Peritoneal cavity: within the abdominal cavity; lined by peritoneum; some organs are retroperitoneal (e.g., kidneys); some extend inferior to peritoneal cavity (infraperitoneal)

Module 1.22: Review

• A. Describe two distinctive features and two essential functions of true body cavities.
• B. Identify the body cavities of the trunk.
• C. If a surgeon makes an incision just inferior to the diaphragm, what body cavity will be opened?
• Learning Outcome: Identify the major body cavities of the trunk and the subdivisions of each.