The History of Anthropology by Dr. Jeffrey Peterson

The History of Anthropology

Unilineal Evolutionism

  • Definition: Unilineal evolutionism posits that cultures develop through linear evolutionary phases.

  • Key Aspects:

    • There is a linkage between subsistence strategies, technology, and social behavior/outcomes.

    • Cultures are viewed as progress-driven, categorized into three phases:

    • Savagery

    • Barbarism

    • Civilization (often interpreted as Western society)

    • Some cultures are perceived as more "evolved" or "civilized" than others.

Historical Context of Unilineal Evolutionism

  • Armchair Anthropologists: These individuals would often justify the domination of “primitive” societies on political, economic, and cultural grounds, claiming it was for their own benefit.

  • Perception of Societies: "Primitive" societies were seen as living fossils.

  • Prominent Figures:

    • Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881)

    • Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917)

    • Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Critique of Living Fossils Concept

  • The term "living fossils" is viewed as an outdated and racist trope in anthropology.

Rejection of Social Evolutionism

  • Historical Particularism: Developed by Franz Boas (1858-1942), this approach rejects social evolutionism, emphasizing that societies develop cultural traits based on their unique histories.

  • Cultural Connections: Cultures borrow from each other, leading to the diffusion of cultural traits among societies.

  • Cultural Relativism: Understanding that cultures can be appreciated on their own terms without universal metrics of judgment.

  • Holistic Anthropology: Investigating human cultures in their entirety, considering multiple aspects at once.

Students of Boas

  • Notable students include:

    • Ruth Benedict (1887-1948)

    • Margaret Mead (1901-1978)

    • Edward Sapir (1884-1939)

    • Alfred Kroeber (1876-1960)

    • Ishi, a particularly notable figure who became a subject of study for Kroeber.

    • Zora Neale Hurston (1891-1960), noted for exploring Black folklore and tradition, including her work with the hountar drum.

Functionalism

  • Definition: The theory that customs and institutions function to serve the biological and psychological needs of individuals within society.

  • Pioneers: Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) is recognized for his contributions to ethnographic field methods.

Psychological Functionalism

  • Focuses on how customs serve to preserve individual psychological needs.

Structural Functionalism

  • Customs are viewed as mechanisms for sustaining social structures.

  • This theory de-emphasizes the individual in favor of the collective.

  • Example: The value of ritual is considered in terms of its importance to society as a whole rather than its significance to an individual.

  • Notable figures include:

    • Edward Evans-Pritchard (1902-1973)

    • A.R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955)

Structuralism

  • Definition: The approach that suggests common mental structures lead people to think similarly and classify the world in comparable ways.

  • These mental structures were viewed as foundational units of culture, frequently categorized as binary opposites.

  • Key Figure: Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-2009).

Culture and Personality

  • Socialization Practices: These are essential in shaping individual personalities, which in turn are influenced by societal factors.

  • Margaret Mead emphasized the importance of studying adolescence to comprehend critical socialization processes.

Cultural Ecology

  • Focuses on the relationship between human culture and local environmental factors.

  • Examines cultural evolution through the lenses of technology and energy consumption.

  • Social organization is directed towards resource extraction and economic activities.

  • Prominent anthropologists in this field include:

    • Julian Steward (1902-1972)

    • Leslie White (1900-1975).

Post-Structuralism

  • Investigates power relations and offers historical perspectives through time.

  • Definitions:

    • Power: The ability to impose one’s will over another.

    • Voice: The concept of representation and authority in societal contexts.

    • Asserts that objectivity is unattainable in anthropological study.

  • Key Figure: Michel Foucault (1926-1984).

Practice Theory: Structure vs Agency

  • Central Question: Do individuals shape society, or does society shape individuals?

  • Definitions:

    • Practice: Anything that people do.

    • Habitus: The ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions that individuals acquire through their life experiences.

  • Key theorists include:

    • Sherry Ortner

    • Pierre Bourdieu.

Structure

  • Agent: A person who acts within a social structure.

    • Internalized as values and roles adopting social norms.

    • Externalized via social action (performative acts in society).

    • Implications: Produces and reproduces social norms and structures while enabling and constraining individual actions.

    • Questions of unequal power and potential for change arise.

Decolonizing Anthropology

  • Anthropology as a Discipline: Addressed as being largely white, Eurocentric, and hegemonic.

  • Calls for a rethinking of methods, theory, and engagement in anthropological research and practice.

  • Advocating for an expansion in knowledge production processes.

  • Influential Voice: Faye V. Harrison.

Key Takeaways from Anthropological Thought

  1. Anthropology is Always Changing: Acknowledges the field as a dynamic, active science.

  2. Broad Tool Kit: Anthropology utilizes a diverse set of frameworks and methodologies.

Key Framework Themes/Topics in Anthropology

  • Unilineal Evolution

  • Historical Particularism

  • Functionalism (Cultural institutions enabling societal functions)

    • Organic analogy

    • Psychological Functionalism

    • Structural Functionalism

  • Structuralism

  • Culture and Personality

  • Cultural Ecology (Interplay between culture and environment)

  • Post-Structuralism

  • Practice Theory (Balance of structure vs agency)