1.4 on Indirect Democracy: Republics, Monarchies, and Authoritarianism (4.2)
Republics
Indirect democracy solution: balance between giving people a voice and preventing rash, passionate or uninformed majorities from making hasty decisions.
Republic vs direct democracy
In a republic, people elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.
Even in ancient Athens, the assembly of 6,000 (6{,}000) elected a council of 500 (500); many democracies have features of a republic.
Democratic republics: broad citizen voting often leads to this label, but the term has multiple meanings, especially in Cold War-era contexts.
Purposes and design of republics
Republics are designed to check the passions of the people, which can make them seem remote or unresponsive.
The designers of the U.S. Constitution did not see themselves as (then) democrats; democracy equaled mob-rule in their historical view.
The Democratic Party’s origins: Thomas Jefferson and James Madison’s faction started as Republicans (often labeled Democratic-Republicans in historical texts) and did not call themselves “Democrats” at first.
Reasons for complexity: many layers of government and checks and balances slow the process to avoid impulsive decisions.
Virtue of deliberation: slow deliberation can produce more robust, well-vetted laws; speed isn’t the sole virtue.
Global landscape of republics and monarchies
Of the 192 recognized sovereign nations, only about 10 are not republics (i.e., most nations have some form of republican elements).
About 40 constitutional monarchies exist, where a monarch remains head of state but real political power rests with elected bodies (e.g., UK, Spain, Norway, Sweden).
The monarchies discuss power sharing and ceremonial roles for the monarch while elected bodies govern.
Variants of governance within republics
Some republics place power in a separately elected president; others have a prime minister from the majority party in parliament.
Some parliamentary republics also have a separately elected president with largely ceremonial duties.
Some republics, like Canada and the United Kingdom, have legislative branches (parliament) that hold both legislative and executive powers in practice, due to constitutional arrangements.
Illiberal democracies
Elections exist, but civil rights and liberties are less protected, and media may be controlled.
Russia is a prime example of an illiberal democracy.
Singapore is sometimes considered illiberal due to dominant one-party control and restrictions on civil liberties.
Alternatives and hybrid forms within republican ideas
Some states call themselves republics yet are communist in practice; e.g., China, Vietnam; this is viewed as an oxymoron by many scholars because communism traditionally rejects meaningful elections.
Distinctions exist between illiberal democracies, semi-presidential republics, and traditional parliamentary-republic structures.
France as a semi-presidential example
France blends presidential and parliamentary powers: a president and a prime minister from the majority party share executive functions.
The president can dissolve the National Assembly and call elections; the balance depends on whether the president’s party controls the assembly.
An appointed constitutional council exists to rule on constitutionality of new laws.
Practical implications and real-world relevance
Democracies vary in how they implement republican ideals, reflecting historical experiences, cultural norms, and political systems.
The balance between efficiency (getting things done) and deliberation (careful, constitutional changes) is a central tension in republic design.
Other Forms of Government: Monarchy
Monarchy as a form of government
Monarchy means rule by a monarch (king, queen, sultan, etc.).
Most still-existing monarchies are constitutional monarchies: a monarch exists but real political power rests with elected bodies.
Constitutional monarchies
Examples include the United Kingdom, Spain, Norway, and Sweden.
In such systems, the monarch’s role is largely ceremonial; elected representatives govern.
History example: in 1892, William Gladstone became prime minister (head of government) after Liberal Party majority; Queen Victoria, constrained by law, named him PM.
Absolute monarchies and mixed monarchies
Absolute monarchies: Brunei, Omani, Qatar, Saudi Arabia (royal family holds real power).
Mixed monarchies: in which the monarch shares power with elected officials, as in Swaziland, Kuwait, Bahrain, UAE.
Active monarchies: in Jordan, Morocco, Monaco, and Liechtenstein, the monarch still plays a direct role in government; most are in the Middle East and are oil-wealthy.
Saudi Arabia as a case study
Founding and ruling family: Abdul-Aziz Ibn Saud founded the kingdom in 1932; descendants have ruled since.
Succession: a 2006 agreement created a council of 32 top-ranking family members to select future kings, evaluating skill, experience, popularity, and religious sentiments.
Governance and geography: 13 provinces with royal princes governing; royal family members hold top offices (defense, foreign affairs, interior, etc.).
Legitimacy and religious authority: rule justified by the Quran and religious authorities (Wahhabi/Salafi influence) and the state uses Sharia courts for religious matters.
Social and political aspects: women historically cannot vote; local elections occurred in 2005 and 2011, with statements in 2015 about women running for and voting in local elections.
Civil participation and wealth management: some public participation through the court system; tribal petitions to the king exist; wealth from oil is invested in education and development, with positive outcomes but criticisms that royal family wealth is treated as personal wealth.
The legitimacy challenge: maintaining legitimacy requires balancing citizens, religious authorities, other wealthy families, and external interests; this tension often pushes monarchies toward constitutional forms.
Why monarchies often evolve toward constitutional arrangements
Maintaining legitimacy becomes harder when citizens lack adequate voice; economic development and modernization can push toward more representative governance.
Practical implications
Monarchies vary in how power is distributed between ceremonial duties and real political authority; legitimacy often hinges on religious authority, wealth distribution, and political performance.
Authoritarian Governments/Dictatorships
Current landscape and transitions
The Arab Spring (2011) toppled several authoritarian governments in Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt; Syria experienced a prolonged civil conflict; Myanmar gradually allowed elections after four decades of military rule.
Turkmenistan and Belarus are examples of one-party states; Fiji and Guinea-Bissau have seen military rule in recent history.
The Economist’s country rankings (expert-driven): 53 states authoritarian, 37 hybrid, 53 flawed democracies, and 25 full democracies.
Definitions used: authoritarian states lack meaningful elections; public dissent is discouraged or forbidden; hybrids combine authoritarian and democratic elements.
Notable lone cases and regions
Two states often highlighted as the most authoritarian: North\;Korea and the Central\;African\;Republic (CAR).
The CAR’s long history includes slave raids, colonial oppression, and a half-century of unstable elections and coups; NK is infamous for extreme repression.
North Korea's regime: Kim family rule since the mid-20th century, large defense spending (around 25 ext{\%} of GDP), nuclear program, pervasive malnutrition, no meaningful unions or independent civil society.
Geography’s influence in NK: bordered only by China and South Korea, limiting opportunities to flee; the regime discourages opposition with a security state; a broad state narrative portrays external threats to justify repression.
Public appeals and sanctions: aid from other nations persists despite tests and sanctions, partly to avoid destabilizing a regime seen as a useful counterbalance by some international actors.
Economic and political characteristics
Many authoritarian states are relatively poor; modernization theory contends that wealth raises democratic prospects, with per-capita GDP surpassing 5{,}000 correlating with a higher likelihood of democratic transitions.
Mexico (as a counterexample): truly competitive elections did not occur until 1993, when presidential and congressional competition intensified; subsequent elections became more credible as wealth increased.
The general pattern: authoritarian regimes sustain control through force, coercion, and propaganda rather than through broad popular consent.
Theocracies and other distinct forms
The Vatican City and Iran are theocracies, where religious authority exerts substantial political influence.
Monarchies and authoritarian states often rely on wealth, force, and coercive mechanisms to maintain power, with varying degrees of public participation.
Totalitarian vs Authoritarian
Key distinctions
Totalitarian: an ideology-driven, highly centralized system led by a charismatic ruler; aims for total control, often with a unifying philosophy.
Authoritarian: a high level of corruption and power consolidation, but not necessarily an all-encompassing ideological program; political power is centralized, but civil society may exist in limited form.
Characteristics and examples
Totalitarian example: Benito Mussolini’s Fascist Italy (extremely ideological, centralized control; elections are not typical).
Myanmar/Burma’s military rule: authoritarian but not necessarily totalitarian, lacking a singular, all-encompassing ideological program.
Elections in totalitarian states are rarely free or fair; authoritarian states may hold elections but results are often manipulated or incomplete.
Practical takeaway
Most of the world’s governments are some form of republic, though not all operate as cleanly as the ideal liberal republic; there remain monarchies and various authoritarian regimes.
Exercises and Key Takeaways
Exercise 1: Pick any country other than your own; consult the CIA World Factbook or a similar source; identify the government type and determine whether it is a republic and whether political liberties exist.
Exercise 2: Consider a national initiative process for the United States; outline how it would work and discuss potential advantages and drawbacks.
Key Takeaways
Republics aim to balance popular voice with checks on passions and deliberation to prevent rash legislating.
A republic may feature a separately elected president or a prime minister from a majority party; some parliamentary republics also have a ceremonial president.
Constitutional monarchies combine a ceremonial head of state with elected government, illustrating how monarchy can coexist with democracy.
Illiberal democracies hold elections but restrict civil liberties and media, undermining the meaning of