Chapter 14: The Ocean's Resources

• The Law of the Sea Treaty: This international agreement establishes the legal framework for the management and control of ocean areas and their resources. It dictates how nations can utilize oceanic waters adjacent to their coastlines.

• Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ):     * Under the Law of the Sea Treaty, national governments exercise control over more than $40\%$ of the world´s total ocean area through established Exclusive Economic Zones.     * Within an EEZ, a coastal nation has sole exploitation rights over all natural resources, including mineral and biological resources.

• The Exclusive Economic Zone of the United States:     * The United States maintains an extensive EEZ that covers vast regions of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans.     * Specific territories and islands included in the U.S. EEZ are:         * The contiguous United States (East, West, and Gulf coasts).         * Alaska and the corresponding Arctic Circle region.         * Hawaii.         * Midway Islands.         * Wake Island.         * Guam.         * Kingman Reef.         * Palmyra Atoll.         * Howland and Baker Islands.         * American Samoa.         * Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.     * The U.S. EEZ spans from approximately $60^{\circ}\text{ N}$ to $14^{\circ}\text{ S}$ and crosses various longitudinal markers from $30^{\circ}\text{ W}$ to $120^{\circ}\text{ E}$.

Marine Mineral Resources and Hydrocarbons

• Petroleum and Gas Extraction:     * Drilling on the Continental Shelf: Mining for liquid minerals like oil occurs through the construction of offshore oil-rig platforms positioned above the sea bottom.     * Geological Traps: Successful oil extraction requires a specific geological arrangement called an "oil trap" within the continental shelf.         * Impermeable Shale Cap Rock: A layer of rock that prevents the upward migration of hydrocarbons, effectively sealing them underground.         * Oil-filled Sandstone Reservoir: A porous layer of sandstone located beneath the cap rock that holds the oil.         * Water-filled Sandstone: This layer typically sits below the oil-filled reservoir, as oil is less dense than water and floats on top of it within the rock strata.

• Gas Hydrates:     * Composition: A gas hydrate consists of a methane molecule ($CH_4$) trapped within a lattice or "cage" structure of frozen water ($H_2O$).     * Distribution: Gas hydrates are widely distributed globally, typically found in high-pressure, low-temperature environments along continental margins (slopes and rises) and in deep-ocean sediments.

• Sand and Gravel:     * These are primary mineral resources extracted from the continental shelf.     * In the United States, significant deposits have been systematically surveyed and identified along the Atlantic coast, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Pacific coast.

• Manganese Nodules:     * These are potato-sized mineral concretions found on the deep-ocean floor.     * They consist of manganese, iron, and other valuable metals.     * Extremely dense concentrations of these nodules have been documented blanketing the sea bottom in specific regions, such as the South Pacific Ocean.

Biological Resources: Commercial Fisheries

• Classification of Commercially Important Fish:     * Pelagic Fish: These are fish that live in the water column of the open ocean. Notable commercial species include:         * Anchovy: Small schooling fish (scale shown at approximately $0$ to $150\,mm$).         * Mackerel: Fast-swimming pelagic fish (scale shown at approximately $0$ to $150\,mm$).         * Tuna: Large, high-value pelagic predators (scale shown at approximately $0$ to $150\,mm$).     * Groundfish (Demersal Fish): These fish live on or near the bottom of the ocean. Notable commercial species include:         * Hake (scale shown up to $150\,mm$).         * Haddock (scale shown up to $150\,mm$).         * Cod (scale shown up to $150\,mm$).

• Global Fishery Statistics:     * Major commercial fisheries are concentrated in areas of high primary productivity, particularly in upwelling zones and over the continental shelves.     * 2002 Global Catch: The total fish catch for the year 2002 was measured in millions of tons, reflecting the massive scale of human dependence on ocean proteins.

Shipping and Maritime Tonnage Trends

• Vessel Counts and Tonnage (1980–2000):     * The number of maritime vessels ($\times 10^3$) showed a steady increase through the 1980s but has effectively stabilized since the year 1990.     * Gross Ship Tonnage Trends: In contrast to the stabilization of vessel numbers, the total gross ship tonnage ($\times 100$) has plummeted significantly since 1990.     * This indicates a major shift in maritime logistics, potentially involving changes in vessel size, efficiency, or decommissioning of older, larger ships.

Mariculture and Coastal Aquaculture

• Practice of Mariculture: Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms in their natural environment or in seawater tanks/ponds.

• Example: Oyster Farming:     * Oysters are frequently grown in coastal waters using specialized structures to protect them from predators and optimize growth conditions.     * This practice allows for the sustainable harvest of shellfish without depleting wild populations.