Nixon's Presidency and Watergate Scandal Notes

Nixon's Presidency (1969–1974)

  • Overview:
    • Richard Nixon was respected for his abilities and experience as Vice-President under Eisenhower.
    • However, he was also distrusted and disliked by many.
    • Arthur Schlesinger Jr. termed his administration an "imperial presidency" due to its dominance over other branches and its secretive, inflexible nature.
    • His presidency was marked by contradictions:
      • Largest presidential victory margin in US history (1972).
      • First president to use the 25th Amendment to nominate a VP successor.
      • First president to resign.
      • First president to be pardoned by his successor.

1968 Election

  • Nixon was initially hesitant to run after losses in 1960 and 1962.
  • Announced candidacy on February 1, 1968, creating a conservative coalition.
  • Factors contributing to his election:
    • Johnson's decision not to run.
    • Robert F. Kennedy's assassination.
    • Division within the Democratic Party between McCarthy's pacifism and Humphrey's moderate stance.

Further Splits within the Democratic Party

  • Humphrey won the Democratic nomination but the party was divided over the Vietnam War.
  • Violence outside the 1968 Democratic National Convention reflected this divide.
  • Nixon won the Republican endorsement over Rockefeller and Reagan.
  • Faced competition from George Wallace, a segregationist.
  • Nixon constructed a "Southern Strategy" to win over conservative white southerners.
  • Spiro Agnew was selected as VP to appeal to voters concerned about civil rights.
  • Humphrey's late announcement that he would stop bombing Vietnam nearly won him the election, but his association with Johnson's Vietnam policy hurt him.

Nixon's Presidency: Domestic Issues

  • Liberals criticized Nixon for his "red baiting" past, but his policies were often moderate.

  • In his Inaugural Speech (1969), he presented himself as a centrist.

  • However, he was more right-wing than Kennedy and Johnson.

  • New Federalism: Reduced federal bureaucracy by prioritizing state and municipal governments.

  • New American Revolution (1971): Introduced "revenue sharing," directing federal tax money to state and local governments.

  • The State and Local Assistance Act (1972) provided 4billion4 billion per year in matching funds.

  • Modified Johnson’s Model Cities Program with a planned variation urban renewal plan (1971).

Economic Policies:
  • Initially adopted conservative approaches to combat inflation.
    • Reduced federal spending.
    • Slowed money supply growth.
  • This led to an economic downturn (1969-1971).
    • Unemployment doubled to 6%6\%.
    • Inflation rose to 5%5\%.
  • Adopted deficit spending techniques, wage and price controls, and devalued the US dollar to boost exports.
  • These policies contributed to an economic rebound in 1972.
  • Impounded funds appropriated by Congress to limit federal spending (1972), but this was later ruled illegal by the courts (1973-1975).
  • Signed the Federal Election Campaign Act (1972), requiring campaign contributions to be reported.

Reorganization of the Welfare State

  • Increased Social Security funding by 50%50\%. Authorized more federal aid for medical education.
  • Proposed the Family Assistance Plan (FAP) (1969).
    • Replaced programs like AFDC with direct cash payments.
    • Guaranteed a minimum income for welfare recipients.
    • Required recipients to work or undergo job training (except mothers of preschool children).
  • FAP received criticism from both conservatives and liberals and ultimately expired.
  • Vetoed the Economic Opportunity Act Amendments (1971).

Law and Order

  • Delivered the Silent Majority Speech (1969), outlining a plan for ending the Vietnam War.
  • Represented a conservative backlash against student radicals and anti-war protestors.

Women's Rights

  • Campaigned for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) but did not actively promote it.
  • Undertook reforms to fight gender bias.
    • Appointed women to his administration.
    • Launched a Presidential Task Force on Women’s Rights.
    • Filed sex discrimination lawsuits.
  • Warren Burger's appointment led to Roe versus Wade (1973), legalizing abortion.

Civil Rights Policies

  • Lowered the voting age to 18 with the 26th Amendment (1971).
  • Launched the Office of Minority Business Enterprise (OMBE) (1969).
  • Advocated for desegregation at a local level through biracial state committees.
  • Implemented affirmative action programs.
  • Opposed desegregation busing.
  • Opposed the extension of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
  • Tried to appoint white supremacists to the Supreme Court.

Environmental Policies

  • Signed a bill creating the Council on Environmental Quality (1970).
  • Established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1970).
  • Passed the Clean Air Act of 1970.
  • Insisted environmental proposals meet cost-benefit standards.
  • Vetoed the Clean Water Act (1972) due to its cost (18billion18 billion), but Congress overrode the veto.

1972 Election Campaign

  • Focused on his achievements.
  • Initially faced challenges from Edmund Muskie and George Wallace.
  • George McGovern was nominated as the democratic candidate and was perceived as too liberal.
  • Nixon won by a landslide (46.7 million votes to 28.9 million).
  • Democrats kept control of Congress.

Second Term Policies

  • Signed the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) (1973).
  • Faced the OPEC oil embargo (1973).
    • Oil prices soared, leading to inflation and unemployment rising to 9%9\%.
    • Introduced energy conservation measures.
      • Reduced speed limits.
      • Banned Sunday gas sales.
      • Reduced non-essential lighting.
  • Created the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Acts.
  • Raised the minimum wage to 22 per hour (1974).
  • Signed a cease-fire for the Vietnam War (1973).
  • Congress passed the War Powers Resolution (1973) over Nixon’s veto.

Watergate and Possible Impeachment

  • His second term was overshadowed by the Watergate scandal.
  • Break-in at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) offices in the Watergate building (June 17, 1972).
  • The break-in was traced to the Committee to Re-elect the President (CRP or CREEP).
    • CREEP created an "Enemies List".
    • Engaged in "dirty tricks".
  • Wiretapping of Democratic politicians was approved.
  • Nixon directed the CIA to stop the FBI investigations.
  • Nixon authorized money to keep those involved quiet and some top officials committed perjury.
Watergate Timeline
  • June 17, 1972: DNC headquarters broken into.
  • June 23, 1972: “Smoking gun” conversation where Nixon orders the CIA to halt the FBI investigation.
  • November 7, 1972: Nixon re-elected.
  • October 10, 1973: Agnew resigns and pleads guilty to tax evasion.
  • October 20, 1973: "Saturday Night Massacre”.
  • January 4, 1974: House Judiciary Committee opens impeachment hearings.
  • July 24, 1974: House Judiciary Committee recommends articles of impeachment.
  • August 5, 1974: Nixon surrenders subpoenaed tapes.

Origin of the White House Plumbers

  • Created to find information on Daniel Ellsberg after the Pentagon Papers were released (1971).
  • Nixon's staff were known for their loyalty.
  • Key appointees:
    • Henry Kissinger
    • John Mitchel
    • John Dean
    • Charles Coulson
    • Ronald Ziegler
    • HR Haldeman
    • John Ehrlichman
  • Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities (Watergate Committee) began its investigation (February 7, 1973).
  • Nixon announced resignations and dismissals (April 20, 1973).
  • Televised public hearings began in May 1973.
  • John Dean revealed Nixon knew about the cover-up.
  • Aide revealed a secret taping system.
  • Illegal activities were uncovered.
  • Archibald Cox was appointed special Watergate prosecutor (May 18, 1973).
  • Nixon refused to release tapes, citing executive privilege.
  • Nixon ordered Cox to be fired, leading to the "Saturday Night Massacre" (October 20, 1973).
  • Nixon appointed Leon Jaworski as replacement.
  • Edited transcripts of conversations were released.
  • Nixon was named as unindicted co-conspirator.
  • Impeachment proceedings followed (July 1974).
  • The House Judiciary Committee found grounds for impeachment.
  • Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974.
  • Gerald Ford pardoned Nixon on September 8, 1974.

Reasons for Nixon's Downfall

  • CREEP's actions.
  • Attempting to cover up CREEP and White House staff actions.
  • Paying of "hush money" to obstruct justice.
  • Misusing the FBI and CIA with false claims.
  • Encouraging perjury.
  • Using domestic surveillance against political opposition.
  • Fraud in relation to the donation of his Vice Presidential papers.
  • Misusing the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).
  • Huge undisclosed campaign contributions.
  • A secret bombing campaign in Cambodia.
  • Failure of Nixon’s allies to cooperate with numerous investigations.

Legacy of Watergate

  • Limits of presidential power.
  • Cynicism towards Washington.
  • Historian Stephen Ambrose noted Nixon's liberal domestic achievements.