Informed Consent: Participants must sign a document indicating they understand the study's components and potential risks, and agree to participate.
Informed Assent: A process through which minors agree to participate in clinical trials.
Protect from Harm: Participants should not be subjected to physical or psychological harm, with the level of acceptable harm no greater than what they'd normally encounter.
Confidentiality: Experimenters will not release participant information without consent.
Debriefing: Participants must be debriefed at the study's conclusion, especially if deception was used.
Research Types
Quantitative Research: Collects and analyzes numerical data.
Qualitative Research: Relies on observations and descriptions.
Likert Scales: Numerical scales to assess attitudes with labeled anchors on each extreme.
Research Personnel and Oversight
Institutional Review Board (IRB): A committee that reviews, approves, and monitors research involving human subjects.
Research Confederates: Individuals who participate in an experiment but are not the focus of the researcher's observation.
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean: The arithmetic average of a distribution, calculated by adding the scores and dividing by the number of scores.
Median: The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Percentile Rank: The percentage of scores in a distribution that fall below a particular score.
Example: A student with a percentile rank of 85 has outperformed 85% of all students.
Distribution Types
Skewed Distribution: A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.
Bimodal Distribution: A data distribution with two peaks.
Measures of Variance
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
Normal Curve
The symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes.
Most scores near the average, with fewer scores near the extremes.
Statistical Significance
A measure of how likely the result of an experiment is due to the manipulation of the independent variable (IV) or due to chance.
Reported as a p-value.
The closer the p-value is to 0, the less likely the result is due to chance.
In psychology, a p-value of 0.05 or less is generally acceptable for results to be considered statistically significant.
Statistical Inference
Generalizes from a particular sample to an entire population.
Effect Size
A quantitative measurement of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the difference between groups.
The Scientific Attitude and Critical Thinking
Psychology: The scientific study of mind and behavior.
Critical Thinking: Thinking that examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions, rather than blindly accepting arguments and conclusions.
Psychological Perspectives
Behavioral: Focuses on how we learn observable responses.
Sample Question: How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations?
Biological: Focuses on how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences, and how genes combine with the environment to influence individual differences.
Sample Question: How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives?
Cognitive: Focuses on how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.
Sample Question: How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Solving problems?
Evolutionary: Focuses on how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes.
Sample Question: How does evolution influence behavior tendencies?
Humanistic: Focuses on how we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment.
Sample Question: How can we work toward fulfilling our potential?
Psychodynamic: Focuses on how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.
Sample Question: How can someone's personality traits and disorders be explained by unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?
Social-cultural: Focuses on how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.
Sample Question: How are we alike as members of one human family?
Need for Psychological Science
Cognitive biases (hindsight bias, overconfidence) and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than those based on common sense.
Hindsight bias: The tendency to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions.
Overconfidence: The tendency to be more confident than correct, overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
The Scientific Method
Theories advance psychological science.
Psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and random sampling is important.
Peer review: An evaluation process where scholars or researchers assess each other's work before publication.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Falsifiable: The inherent possibility to prove a statement, hypothesis, or theory to be false.
Operational Definition: The definition of a concept in terms of the actual procedures used by the researcher to measure it.
Replication: Repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
Survey: Obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group through questioning a random sample.
Social desirability bias: A type of response bias in which people answer questions in a way they believe will be viewed favorably by others.
Self-report bias: A methodological problem when researchers rely on asking people to describe their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.
Population: All individuals who can potentially participate in the study.
Random Sample: A sample that fairly represents a population.
Sample: A smaller group selected from a larger population.
Sampling Bias: A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.
Convenience Sampling: Selecting a sample based on availability or proximity to the researcher.
Representative Sample: A sample with characteristics similar to those in the population.
Types of Research
Case Study: Studying one person or group in-depth.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing and recording behavior in natural situations without manipulation.
Meta-Analysis: Analyzing the results of many studies that have measured the same variables.
Experiment: Measures to which two factors vary together and how well one factor can predict the other.
Correlation: Measures to which two factors vary together and how well one factor can predict the other.
Correlation
Correlations can be positive or negative.
Experimental Methodology: Manipulating one variable (independent variable) to determine its effect on another variable (dependent variable).
Non-Experimental Methodology: Research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable.
Correlation coefficient: A number (symbolized by r) between -1 and +1 representing the strength and direction of the correlation.
Illusory Correlation: The perception of a relationship where none exists.
Scatter Plot: Graphs used to plot scores and show correlation.
Directionality Problem: Unclear which variable is causing the other.
Third Variable Problem: A confounding variable that causes two other variables to appear causally related when they are not.
Regression Toward the Mean: The tendency for extreme scores to become more moderate when retested.
Experimentation
Experimental Group: Receives the variable being tested.
Control Group: Does not receive the treatment.
Independent variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated, cause.
Dependent variable (DV): The variable that is measured, effect.
Perfect negative correlation:−1.00
Perfect positive correlation:+1.00
Random assignment: Ensures all members of the sample have an equal chance of being placed into either group
Single Blind: The subjects do not know which group they belong to.
Double blind: Neither the subjects nor the researchers know which group they belong to.
Placebo effect: A real response to an action or substance based solely on expectations.
Confounding Variable: A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect.
Experimenter Bias: The unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis.
Heredity and Environment
Heredity: The passing on of characteristics genetically from one generation to another.
Environment: All external conditions affecting the life and development of an organism.
Nature: Influenced by genetic inheritance and biological factors.
Nurture: Influence of external factors after conception.
Genetic Predisposition: An increased chance of developing a disease based on genetic variants.
Evolutionary Psychology: The study of the mental adaptations of humans to a changing environment.
Natural Selection: Certain behaviors and genes best for survival.
Identical twins: Develop from a single fertilized egg, genetically identical.
Fraternal twins: Develop from separate fertilized eggs, no closer than siblings.
Eugenics: The study of how to arrange reproduction to increase desirable heritable characteristics.
Twin studies: Conducted on identical or fraternal twins to reveal environmental and genetic influences.
Adoption studies: Compare adopted children with adoptive and biological parents.
Family studies: Examine the relationship between genetics and mental disorders.
Overview of the Nervous System
Nervous System: The body's electrochemical communications network.
Central Nervous System: The brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System: All components except the brain and spinal cord.
Sympathetic nervous System: Excites the body for action, fight or flight.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Restores the body's energy, rest and digest.
Nerves: Bundles of fibers that transmit impulses.
Spinal Reflex Arc: Neural pathway for rapid, automatic responses.
The Neuron and Neural Firing
Neurons: Individual nerve cells.
Glial cells: Provide nutrition and protection for neurons.
Sensory neurons: Take information from the senses to the brain.
Motor neurons: Take information from the brain to the body.
Interneurons: Take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord.
Mirror Neurons: Play a role in action understanding, imitation learning, and language processing.
Action Potential: An impulse or brief electric charge that travels down the axon.
Threshold: The level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse.
All or None Response: A neuron either sends an impulse or it does not.
Resting Potential: When a neuron does not have an action potential.
Polarized: The state of a resting neuron with positive charge outside and negative charge inside.
Depolarization: An axon that is firing, positive ions enter the axon.
Refractory Period: A resting pause, neurons restore positively charged sodium ions back outside of the cell.
Reuptake: The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron.
Excitatory neurotransmitters: Stimulate the brain.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters: Calm the brain down.
Neurotransmitters and Their Functions
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that cross synaptic gaps between neurons that generate the next neural impulse.
Acetylcholine (ACH): Enables muscle action, learning, and memory. Deterioration linked to Alzheimer's disease.
Dopamine: Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Oversupply linked to schizophrenia, undersupply to Parkinson's.
Serotonin: Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression.
Norepinephrine: controls alertness and arousal. Undersupply can depress mood.
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
Glutamate: A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory. Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures.
Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure. Oversupply with opioid drugs can suppress the body's natural endorphin supply.
Substance P: Involved in pain perception and immune response. Oversupply can lead to chronic pain.
Hormone: A chemical messenger produced in the body (released in the bloodstream).
Adrenaline: Activates the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight).
Melatonin: Regulates sleep and wake cycles.
Ghrelin: Increases hunger.
Leptin: Decreases hunger.
Oxytocin: Plays a role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth.
Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive drugs: Chemical substances that alter perceptions, mood, or behavior.
Addiction: Craving for a chemical substance despite its adverse effects.
Tolerance: Brain produces less of a neurotransmitter after long-term use, needing increased amounts of the drug for the same effect.
Withdrawal: Symptoms associated with discontinuing a drug.
Depressants: Lower neural activity and slow body functioning.
Alcohol: Slows neural processing and thinking and impairs physical activity
Opiates: Reduce neurotransmission and temporarily lessen pain and anxiety
Barbiturates
Stimulants: Speed up the body's functions.
Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine, meth, Amphetamines
Hallucinogens (psychedelics): Distort perceptions of reality.
LSD, Marijuana
Opioids: Psychoactive drugs that act on opioid receptors, producing pain relief, euphoria, and sedation. (heroin)
Agonists: Chemicals that activate receptors and make effects stronger.
Caffeine: agonist for ACH.
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): agonists for serotonin.
Adderall, methamphetamine, cocaine, and speed: agonists of norepinephrine.
Benzodiazepines and alcohol: agonists of GABA.
Opiates (morphine, oxycodone, heroin, etc.): agonists of endorphins.
Antagonists: Chemicals that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters.
LSD: antagonist for serotonin.
Reuptake inhibitors: Drugs that prevent the reuptake of neurotransmitters.
Cocaine
Neurological Disorders
Multiple Sclerosis (MS): Loss of muscle control resulting from a deterioration of myelin sheath
Myasthenia gravis (MG): autoimmune disorder caused by a blockade of neuromuscular transmission resulting in skeletal muscle weakness and rapid muscle fatigue (caused by a blockage of acetylcholine)
The Brain
Brainstem: Oldest part, responsible for automatic survival functions.
Medulla: Controls heartbeat, blood circulation, breathing, muscle maintenance, regulation of reflexes like sneezing/coughing.
Reticular activating system: Regulate behavioral arousal, consciousness and motivation
Cerebellum: Processes sensory input, coordinates movement output and balance, and enables nonverbal learning and memory.
Thalamus: Directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex.
Limbic System: Associated with emotions and drives.
Hippocampus: Vital to our memory system
Amygdala: Responsible for fear and aggressive responses
Hypothalamus: Regulates the autonomic nervous system temperature, hunger, and sex
Pituitary Gland: Controls other glands and makes the hormones that trigger growth
Hemisphere: the brain has two hemispheres, the left and the right. The left controls the right side of the body and the right controls the left side of the body
Left Hemisphere: specializes in language, speech, handwriting, calculation, sense of time and rhythm
Right Hemisphere: specializes in processing involving perception, visualization, recognition of faces & emotions
Corpus Callosum: Connects the two brain hemispheres.
Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of tissue of the hemispheres, and smaller subcortical structure
Frontal Lobe: speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements
The prefrontal cortex: Controls executive functions including attention, inhibition, working memory, problem-solving and planning
Broca's Area: Responsible for speech production and language Damage to this area can result in Broca's aphasia
Parietal Lobe: receives sensory input for touch and body position
Occipital Lobe: Includes areas that receive information from the visual fields, contains the visual cortex
Temporal Lobe: Includes the auditory areas and helps with hearing and meaningful speech, contains the primary auditory cortex
Wernicke's area: involved in understanding written and spoken language. Damage to this area is called Wernicke's Aphasia.
Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movements
Sensory Cortex: Registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Association Areas: areas in the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental function.
Contralateral Hemispheric Organization: Arrangement where the motor cortex of each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
Split Brain: Condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres.
Left Hemisphere: Controls right hand, spoken language, written language, mathematical and logical thought processes, analysis, and reading
Right Hemisphere: Controls left hand, nonverbal (visual) perception. Is responsible for musical and artistic processing, and emotional thought
Neuroplasticity: Reorganization of neural pathways as a result of experience.
Brain Lesion: Lesions are tissue that is destroyed
EEG: recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface
fMRI: technique for revealing blood flow/brain activity
Sleep
Consciousness: Our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Circadian Rhythm: The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms
Jet Lag: A temporary physiological condition that occurs when a person's circadian rhythm, or "internal clock", is out of sync with the time zone
EEG patterns: patterns recorded in the brain's electrical activity: alpha waves, beta waves, theta waves, and delta waves
NREM 1-2: awake/½ asleep
Hypnagogic sensations: a sensation of impending threat, feelings of suffocation, and sensations of floating, spinning, or falling
NREM 2: light sleep - associated with sleep talking
NREM 3: Deep Sleep
Hormones for growth in children, Immune system refreshes itself
REM Sleep: rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur and body is immobilized
Rem Rebound: when a person experiences more rapid eye movement (REM) sleep than normal after a period of sleep deprivation or stress