Unit 3 AP World History: Land-Based Empires (1450-1750)

Overview of Land-Based Empires (1450-1750)

Definition of a Land-Based Empire: An empire whose power is derived primarily from the extent of its territorial holdings on land.
Time Period Scope: This era, spanning from $1450$ to $1750$ , is characterized by the rapid expansion, administrative consolidation, and shifting belief systems of major land-based empires.
Core Theme of Expansion: Land-based empires in this period were "getting bigger" and expanding their reach through various military and administrative means.

The Ottoman Empire: Growth and Military Elite

Origins and Expansion: Founded in the $14^{th}$ century, the Ottoman Empire began as a small state but expanded extremely quickly.
The Role of Gunpowder: The chief reason for Ottoman expansion was the adoption of gunpowder weapons. While gunpowder was originally invented in China, it spread via trade routes across Afro-Eurasia.
Geographic Control: By the beginning of the $15^{th}$ century, the Ottomans controlled significant portions of Anatolia and Southwestern Europe.
The Conquest of Constantinople ( $1453$ ): * The Islamic Ottomans scored a massive victory by conquering Constantinople in $1453$ , using massive cannons and gunpowder weapons. * The city was renamed Istanbul. * Significance: Constantinople was the "beating heart" of the remainder of the Roman Empire. Its fall opened the door for Ottoman expansion further into Eastern Europe.
The Janissaries: * As the Ottomans conquered states in the Balkans, they implemented a policy of enslaving Christians. * These individuals were converted to Islam, and the most capable were trained into an elite fighting force known as the Janissaries. * The Janissaries, combined with gunpowder technology, allowed the empire to expand massively through $1750$ .

The Safavid Empire: Leadership and Religious Identity

Foundation: Established at the beginning of the $16^{th}$ century in the Middle East.
Expansion under Shah Ismail: The empire grew rapidly as Shah Ismail led raids and conquered neighboring territories.
Military Reform under Shah Abbas: * Because the empire lacked natural defensive barriers (like mountains), Shah Abbas significantly built up the military. * Gunpowder and Enslaved Soldiers: Similar to the Ottomans, the Safavid cavalry was reluctant to use firearms from horseback. Consequently, Shah Abbas established an army of enslaved Christians from conquered regions, specifically the Caucasus region. * These soldiers were highly trained, full-time professionals loyal to the Shah.
The Sunni-Shia Conflict: * While both the Ottoman and Safavid empires were Muslim, they adhered to different branches. * Ottoman Empire: Sunni Muslims. They believed any spiritually fit person could be the rightful successor to Muhammad. * Safavid Empire: Shia Muslims. They believed only blood relatives of Muhammad were legitimate successors. * Both branches viewed themselves as the true representation of Islam and the other as illegitimate, leading to deep-seated conflict.

The Mughal Empire: Conquest and Administration

Foundation ( $1526$ ): Established in the first half of the $16^{th}$ century in South and Central Asia by Babur.
Conquest of the Delhi Sultanate: Babur rose to leadership in Central Asia and led military campaigns that wiped the Delhi Sultanate off the map to establish Mughal rule.
Expansion and Gunpowder: Like its contemporaries, the Mughal Empire relied on a growing military equipped with gunpowder weapons.
The Rule of Akbar: Under Babur's grandson, Akbar, the empire expanded even further.
Religious Tolerance: * The Mughal rulers were Muslims governing a majority Hindu population. * Unlike the previous Delhi Sultanate, Akbar was notably tolerant of all belief systems. * Result: This tolerance, combined with masterful administration, made the Mughals the most prosperous empire of the $16^{th}$ century.

The Ching (Manchu) Dynasty: Foreign Rule in China

Transition from Ming to Ching: Following the fall of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty, the ethnically Han Ming Dynasty took power to remove foreign influence.
Manchu Conquest: In the first half of the $17^{th}$ century, the Ming Dynasty weakened. The Manchu people from the north (outsiders) invaded and established the Ching Dynasty.
Military Power: The Ching Dynasty utilized gunpowder weapons to lead successful conquests of expansion.

Comparative Summary and Imperial Conflicts

Commonalities: * All four empires were land-based. * All expanded rapidly between $1450$ and $1750$ . * All used gunpowder to achieve expansion.
Differences: * The Ching and Mughal rulers were ethnically different from the majority of their subjects. * The Safavids were Shia Muslim, while the Ottomans were Sunni Muslim.
The Safavid-Mughal Conflict: * A series of wars fought over territory in modern-day Afghanistan. * The Mughals originally controlled the land, but the Safavids seized it while the Mughals were distracted elsewhere. * Religious Tension: The conflict was exacerbated by the Shia (Safavid) vs. Sunni (Mughal) split. Both sides fought for dominance as the "true" representatives of Islam. The wars ended without a clear victor.

Administrative Strategies: Legitimation and Consolidation

Definition of Terms: * Legitimize Power: Methodś a ruler uses to establish their authority. * Consolidate Power: Methods used to transfer power from other groups (like nobility) to the ruler themselves.
The Four Major Methods of Administration: 1. Formation of large bureaucracies. 2. Development of military professionals. 3. Use of religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture. 4. Innovations in tax collection systems.

Bureacracies and Military Professionalism

Large Bureaucracies: Thousands of government officials spread throughout an empire to ensure laws are enforced when the ruler cannot be present.
The Ottoman Devshirme System: * The Ottomans staffed their bureaucracy with highly trained individuals from the Balkans. * Enslaved Christians were converted to Islam and sent to Istanbul for education and training. * Top performers were appointed to elite bureaucratic positions. They were both wise administrators and intensely loyal to the Sultan.
Military Professionals: Examples include the Ottoman Janissaries and the Safavid enslaved army from the Caucasus.

Use of Art, Religion, and Architecture to Govern

Religious Ideas (Divine Right of Kings): In Europe, monarchs perpetuated the idea that they were God’s representatives on Earth. This suggested that challenging the King was equivalent to challenging God/Jesus, which legitimized authority within Christian populations.
Imperial Portraits (Ching Dynasty): * Emperor Kangxi, a Manchu ruler over Han Chinese, used art to legitimize his rule. * He hung portraits of himself surrounded by books, signaling Confucian wisdom and identifying himself as a legitimate Chinese ruler in the line of ancient dynasties.
Monumental Architecture: * Inca Sun Temple (Cusco): Walls covered in gold sheets and courtyards filled with gold statues. Rulers were associated with the gods, and these buildings legitimized that connection. * Palace of Versailles (France): Built by Louis the $14^{th}$ . It communicated his absolute power (legitimization) and was used to consolidate power by requiring nobility to live there. This allowed Louis to monitor them and force them to compete for his attention, transferring power from the nobility to the crown.

Innovations in Tax Collection Systems

Mughal Zamindar System: Elite landowners (zamindars) were authorized to collect taxes from peasants on behalf of the Imperial government. Over time, many became corrupt and skimmed money for themselves.
Ottoman Tax Farming: To avoid increasing the technical bureaucracy, the Ottomans auctioned off the right to collect taxes to the highest bidder. Tax farmers then collected more than required from subjects to enrich themselves.
Aztec Tribute Lists: As the Aztecs conquered regions, they issued tribute lists specifying goods (food, textiles, luxury items) the conquered areas had to send to the imperial seat. This provided revenue and reminded subjects who was in charge.

Transformations and Continuities in Belief Systems

Christianity in Europe: * Roman Catholic Church: The dominant power in Western Europe since the $1^{st}$ century, but plagued by corruption by the $15^{th}$ century. * Simony: The practice of buying ecclesiastical (church) offices. * Indulgences: The sale of forgiveness for sins to finance massive building projects. * Martin Luther: A monk who challenged the Church in $1517$ with his " $95$ Theses" nailed to a church door in Wittenberg. He argued that Catholic practices were non-biblical and misinterpreted salvation. * Protestant Reformation: A massive split in the church facilitated by the printing press, which spread Luther's ideas. * Catholic Counter-Reformation: The Church responded via the Council of Trent, cleaning up corruption but reaffirming their doctrine of salvation. This led to a permanent split but also the growth of Christianity.
Islam: Intensification of Sectarian Splitting: * Political rivalries between the Ottomans and Safavids worsened the Sunni-Shia divide. * Shah Ismail enforced Shia Islam with ferocity, slaughtering resisting Sunnis. * The Safavids developed a military division specifically to ensure citizens ritually and regularly cursed the first three caliphs (successors of Muhammad who were not blood relatives). This was a direct insult to Sunni Muslims.
Sikhism: A Syncretic Development: * A blend of Hindu and Islamic doctrines in South Asia. * Continuities: Retained the belief in one God and the cycle of death and reincarnation. * Changes: Discarded the Hindu caste system and the gender hierarchies found in Islam.