AP EURO

AP European History – Unit 1 Foundations

Feudalism, Early Church Criticism, & The Renaissance (Lyndeurozone)

Feudalism (Medieval Europe)

What was Feudalism?

A decentralized political system after the fall of Rome

Based on land = power

Structure of Feudal Society:

King

Gave land (fiefs) to nobles

Nobles (Lords)

Provided military service to the king

Controlled land and peasants

Knights

Protected the land

Served nobles

Peasants (Serfs)

Worked the land

Had little freedom

🔗 Key Features:

Local power (not centralized)

Loyalty through personal relationships

Economy based on agriculture (manorial system)

Role of the Catholic Church:

Most powerful institution in Europe

Controlled:

Education

Morality

Salvation

Unified Europe under one religion

Takeaway:

Feudalism = fragmented political power, while the Church = central spiritual authority

Early Pushback Against the Church

Even before the Reformation, some thinkers criticized the Church.

Francesco Petrarch

“Father of Humanism”

Criticized focus on medieval traditions

Promoted return to classical Greek and Roman texts

Helped start the intellectual movement that led to the Renaissance

Johann Joust

Jan Hus (often confused as “Johann Joust”)

Early critic of the Catholic Church (before Martin Luther)

Influenced by ideas of reform and returning to true Christian teachings

Opposed Church corruption and the sale of indulgences

Emphasized authority of the Bible over Church leaders

Condemned as a heretic and executed at the Council of Constance

His ideas helped inspire later reformers and the Protestant Reformation

Desiderius Erasmus

Wrote In Praise of Folly

Criticized corruption and abuses in the Church

Wanted reform, not separation

Big Takeaway:

Criticism of the Church existed before Luther—the Reformation didn’t come out of nowhere.

The Renaissance (Rebirth)

What was it?

A cultural and intellectual revival of classical antiquity

Began in Italy (1300s–1500s)

Key Ideas:

1. Humanism

Focus on human potential and achievement

Study of classical texts

2. Secularism

Interest in worldly life (not just religion)

3. Individualism

Emphasis on personal achievement and fame

Why It Started in Italy:

Wealth from trade

Cities like Florence were cultural centers

Access to classical texts

Renaissance Art

Characteristics:

Realism

Perspective

Balance and symmetry

Classical influence

Key Artists:

Leonardo da Vinci

Combined art and science

Example: The Last Supper

Michelangelo

Focus on ideal human form

Example: Sistine Chapel

Raphael

Balanced and harmonious compositions

Example: School of Athens

Northern Renaissance

More focused on religion + daily life

Key Figures:

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

Focused on peasant life (art)

Albrecht Dürer

Combined Italian techniques with Northern themes (art)

Big Takeaway:

The Renaissance shifted Europe toward new thinking, criticism, and innovation, helping set the stage for the Reformation.

BIG PICTURE CONNECTION

Feudalism = decentralized, tradition-based society

Church = dominant authority

Early critics (Petrarch, Erasmus, Tetzel issues) → questioning the system

Renaissance = new ideas, humanism, and curiosity

All of this leads directly to the Protestant Reformation

Final Takeaway:

Europe moved from a rigid, Church-dominated feudal system to a more curious, questioning, and innovative society, setting the foundation for major changes like the Reformation and exploration.

Renaissance Humanism & Christian Humanism

• Thomas More
  • Utopia: ideal Christian society with no corruption
• Desiderius Erasmus
  • Christian Humanist
  • In Praise of Folly: criticized and mocked Church corruption and clergy

Italian Renaissance Art (Key Characteristics)

• Focus on:
  • Balance & symmetry
  • Linear perspective
  • Natural, realistic human forms
  • Blending of classical (Greek/Roman) and Christian ideas
• Example concept:
  • The Last Supper → unity of earthly chaos and divine calm

High Renaissance Artists & Works

Michelangelo

• Sistine Chapel
  • Depicts stories from the Book of Genesis
  • Figures resemble Greek sculpture → shows humanism + classical influence
  • Included sibyls (Greek female prophets) → suggests Greeks foreshadowed Christianity
  • Strong Greco-Roman influence

Raphael

• School of Athens
  • Located in Vatican Palace (Pope’s library)
  • Commissioned by Pope Julius II
  • Completely secular painting
  • Shows Greek philosophers & scientists → reflects Renaissance humanism
  • Highlights:
    • Plato modeled after Leonardo da Vinci
    • Michelangelo appears in painting
    • Raphael includes himself
• Big idea: The papacy was focused on political/secular power, not just religion

Mannerism (Late Renaissance → Pre-Baroque)

• Style characteristics:
  • Unnatural proportions
  • Elongated figures
  • Complex composition (no clear focal point)
  • Strange/unnatural colors
• Example:
  • Caravaggio – The Entombment of Christ
    • Transitional toward Baroque
• El Greco
  • Major Mannerist artist

Northern Renaissance (Christian Humanism)

Focus: religion + everyday life (not just classical themes)

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

• Return of the Hunters
  • Shows peasant life
  • Emphasizes that common people can be good Christians
  • Northern landscapes → reflect God’s creation and beauty

Albrecht Dürer

• German artist
• Combines:
  • Christian themes
  • Renaissance artistic techniques

New Monarchies (Rise of Strong Kings)

• Developed after feudalism declined
• Characteristics:
  • Standing (professional) armies
  • Centralized tax systems
  • Royal councils (early bureaucracies)
  • Less reliance on nobles
  • Less dependence on the Church

Political Thought

• Jean Bodin
  • Supported strong monarchy
  • Believed centralized power could stop chaos (like French religious wars)

New Monarchies in England and Spain (Lyndeurozone-Based)

Overview: What Are New Monarchies?

New Monarchies emerged after the decline of feudalism. Monarchs began to:

• Centralize power
• Weaken the nobility
• Control taxation and armies
• Use educated officials (bureaucracy)

Key Idea: Power shifts from nobles → monarch

England – The Tudors

Henry VII (r. 1485–1509)

Came to power after the Wars of the Roses, a period of civil war between English noble families.

Methods of Consolidating Power:

1. Control of the Nobility

• Imposed fines and legal restrictions (bonds and recognizances)
• Limited nobles’ ability to maintain private armies

2. Financial Strength

• Avoided costly wars
• Increased royal revenue through efficient taxation

3. Bureaucracy

• Relied on middle-class officials instead of nobles
• Strengthened central government administration

Result:

• Established a strong, stable monarchy
• Reduced noble influence
• Set the foundation for future Tudor rulers

🇪🇸 Spain – Ferdinand and Isabella

Ferdinand II of Aragon & Isabella I of Castile

Their marriage unified Spain politically.

Methods of Consolidating Power:

1. Religious Unity

• Used the Spanish Inquisition to enforce Catholic orthodoxy
• Targeted Jews, Muslims, and converts (conversos)

2. Control of the Nobility

• Reduced noble power and influence
• Replaced nobles with loyal royal officials

3. Centralized Government

• Established royal councils
• Expanded bureaucratic control
• Lessen power of nobles

4. Expansion and Wealth

• Sponsored overseas exploration (e.g., Columbus)
• Began building a global empire

Result:

• Created a unified, powerful Catholic monarchy (before, Spain was religiously diverse)
• Increased Spain’s influence in Europe and abroad

⚖️ Comparison: England vs. Spain

🔥 The Spanish Inquisition

The Spanish Inquisition was established in 1478 by
Ferdinand II of Aragon and
Isabella I of Castile.

🎯 Purpose:

• Enforce Catholic unity in Spain
• Identify and punish heresy (beliefs against the Church)
• Target:
  • Converted Jews (conversos)
  • Converted Muslims (moriscos)
  • Anyone suspected of secretly practicing another religion

⚙️ How It Worked:

• Run by church officials but controlled by the monarchy
• Used trials and interrogations to investigate suspected heretics
• Punishments ranged from:
  • Public humiliation
  • Imprisonment
  • Execution (in extreme cases)

🧠 Why It Matters (Lyndeurozone perspective):

• Religion was used as a tool for political control
• Helped unify Spain under one religion → one ruler
• Strengthened the authority of the monarchy
• Reduced internal division and opposition

💡 Big Takeaway:

The Inquisition wasn’t just about religion—it was a way for the Spanish monarchy to centralize power and control society, which is a key feature of New Monarchies.

Renaissance, New Monarchies, and the Beginnings of European Exploration

🎨 The Renaissance

Key Ideas:

• Revival of Greek and Roman (classical) culture
• Focus on humanism (human potential, achievement)
• Growth of secularism (less focus on religion alone)

🧠 Humanism & Christian Humanism

• Thomas More
  • Utopia: ideal Christian society without corruption
• Erasmus
  • Christian humanist
  • In Praise of Folly: criticized corruption in the Church and clergy

🖌️ Italian Renaissance Art

Characteristics:

• Balance and symmetry
• Linear perspective
• Realistic human forms
• Blend of classical + Christian ideas

Key Works & Artists:

Michelangelo

• Sistine Chapel
  • Stories from Genesis
  • Figures resemble Greek sculptures
  • Included Greek sibyls → shows classical influence on Christianity

Raphael

• School of Athens
  • Depicts Greek philosophers and scientists
  • Secular (non-religious)
  • Reflects importance of classical learning
  • Shows that the papacy focused on power and culture, not just religion

🎭 Mannerism (Late Renaissance)

• Unnatural proportions
• Elongated figures
• No clear focal point
• Strange colors

Artists:

• Caravaggio (The Entombment of Christ)
• El Greco

🌍 Northern Renaissance (Christian Humanism)

Pieter Bruegel

• Return of the Hunters
  • Focus on peasant life
  • Emphasized that common people could be good Christians

Albrecht Dürer

• German artist
• Combined Christian themes with Renaissance techniques

👑 New Monarchies

Key Features:

• Strong centralized power
• Reduced influence of nobles
• Professional armies
• Tax systems controlled by monarchs
• Use of bureaucracies (educated officials)

🇬🇧 England – Henry VII

• Came to power after the Wars of the Roses

How he gained power:

• Controlled nobles through fines and laws
• Avoided war → increased wealth
• Used middle-class officials instead of nobles

Result:

• Strong, stable monarchy
• Reduced noble power

🇪🇸 Spain – Ferdinand & Isabella

How they gained power:

• Unified Spain through marriage
• Reduced power of nobles
• Created centralized government

🔥 The Spanish Inquisition

• Enforced Catholic unity
• Targeted Jews, Muslims, and converts
• Used trials and punishments

Importance:

• Strengthened monarchy
• Used religion as a tool for political control
• Unified Spain under one religion

🧠 Political Thought

• Jean Bodin
  • Supported strong monarchy
  • Believed centralized power could bring stability

🌍 Causes of European Exploration

💰 1. Economic Motives (MOST IMPORTANT)

• Desire for:
  • Spices
  • Silk
  • Luxury goods
• Wanted to bypass middlemen and increase profits
• Mercantilism- economic ideology
  • A flawed economic theory (developed slowly while feudalism is dying and new monarchies is coming up-during populations growth- more ppl=more food- inflation-monarchs and govs base their trade policies on the idea that bc there’s a fixed amount of wealth, that one country can only get richer if it makes another country poorer= major motivation for exploration)
  • The idea that there is a fixed amount of wealth in the world
  • Once all wealth is discovered-that’s it

🐫 The Silk Road

What it was:

• Trade network connecting Europe and Asia

Importance:

• Provided access to valuable goods
• Controlled by middlemen → made goods expensive

Impact:

• Europeans wanted direct trade routes
• Encouraged search for sea routes

⚔️ 2. The Crusades

Effects:

• Increased demand for Asian goods
• Expanded trade networks
• Strengthened religious motivation
• Showed limits of land routes

🎨 3. The Renaissance

Impact on exploration:

• Encouraged curiosity and discovery
• Improved knowledge of geography and science
• Advanced navigation and mapmaking
• Increased interest in wealth and achievement

✝️ 4. Protestant Reformation

Impact:

• Religious conflict (Catholic vs Protestant)
• Increased missionary efforts
• Strengthened monarch power
• Encouraged global expansion

👥 5. Population Growth

• Population increased after the Black Death

Effects:

• Greater demand for goods
• Job competition and limited land
• Growth of cities and trade
• More workers for exploration

🏆 6. Political Competition

• New Monarchies wanted:
  • Wealth
  • Power
  • Prestige
• Exploration became a way to compete

🧭 Portugal Leads Exploration

• Motivation was that they were furthest from Asia
• Used to be controlled by Muslims who mapped out deserts by the stars
• Forced to trade by sea due to isolation
• Had many exploration achievements

Prince Henry the Navigator

• Wanted to find a sea route to China
• Sponsored exploration along Africa bc they have to get across the West Coast of Africa (wanted to see how big Africa is)
• Set up a school for explorers and cartographers (trained Christopher Columbus)
• Supported navigation and mapmaking

Advantages:

• Strong central government
• Atlantic access
• Focus on maritime trade

Goals:

• Find sea route to Asia
• Bypass Muslim-controlled routes
• Gain gold and spices

⚓ Technology

Navigation:

• Astrolabe → find latitude
• Improved maps
• Compass

Ships:

• Caravel:
  • Fast
  • Maneuverable
  • Could sail against the wind

🌍 Early Exploration Pattern

• Portugal explored West Africa
• Built trading posts (not colonies)
• Focused on:
  • Gold
  • Slaves
  • Trade

Spain saw Portugal as an economic threat

Christopher columbus- has a theory he can sail west to Asia- he completely underestimated the size of the Earth

October 1492- Columbus and his crews land in Bahamas- inappropriately named inhabitants Indians cs he thought he was in India

1494- Portugal thinks Columbus found Asia- both countries think Columbus found Asia- Portugal bribed Pope for all lands discovered in East to portugal and all lands discovered in the west to Spain- Papacy agreed (major victory for Portugal initially but then they finally realized that Spain hit the jackpot and found new 2 continents!)- all new discoveries went to Spain- Treaty of Tordesillas.

🔥 BIG PICTURE SUMMARY

European exploration was driven by:

• 💰 Economic motives (MOST IMPORTANT)
• 🐫 Silk Road limitations
• 👥 Population growth
• ⚔️ Crusades
• 🎨 Renaissance curiosity and knowledge
• ✝️ Reformation religious competition
• 🏆 Political competition

🧠 Final Takeaway:

The Age of Exploration happened because Europe had the motivation (money, religion, power) AND the ability (technology, knowledge, strong monarchies) to expand beyond its borders.

🌍 European Exploration (Episode 107)

Spain, Columbus, and Early Consequences

🇪🇸 Spain Enters Exploration

Why Spain got involved:

• Competing with Portugal for power and wealth
• Recently unified under Ferdinand and Isabella
• Wanted:
  • Gold
  • Trade routes
  • Spread Christianity

🧭 Christopher Columbus

Who was he?

• Italian explorer sponsored by Spain
• Believed he could reach Asia by sailing west

What happened:

• In 1492, Columbus sailed across the Atlantic
• Landed in the Caribbean (NOT Asia)

Key Idea:

• Columbus thought he reached Asia, but actually encountered the Americas

Why this matters:

• Opened the door for European colonization
• Started continuous contact between Europe and the Americas

🌎 The Columbian Exchange

What was it?

• The exchange of goods, people, plants, animals, and diseases between:
  • Europe
  • Africa
  • The Americas

From the Americas → Europe:

• Crops:
  • Potatoes
  • Maize (corn)
  • Tomatoes

👉 Led to population growth in Europe

From Europe → Americas:

• Animals:
  • Horses
  • Cows
• Crops:
  • Wheat
• Diseases:
  • Smallpox (VERY IMPORTANT)

🔥 Major Impact:

• Indigenous populations drastically declined due to disease
• Europeans gained major advantages in colonization

💰 Spanish Empire & Goals

Focus:

• Extract wealth (especially gold and silver)
• Convert native populations to Christianity

System:

• Established colonies in the Americas
• Used native labor systems

⛪ Religion in the New World

• Missionaries followed explorers
• Goal: convert indigenous people to Christianity

⚔️ Early Conquest (Preview)

Conquistadors:

• Spanish explorers who conquered land in the Americas

Key figures (you’ll see more later):

• Hernán Cortés
• Francisco Pizarro

Ferdinand and Isabela’s grandson, Charles the 5th- inherits spanish throne at age 19- known as Holy Roman Emperor over in Germany (super powerful)- Charles took a loan from a family in Germany (Fuger)- The Fuger family was a banking family in Europe- Charles took out the loan to secure his title as the Holy Roman Emperor. The next year, Aztec Gold is found in Mexico, that same year, the Inca are discovered in Peru (lots of gold)- Jacob Fuger- head of house of Fuger- finds out about the wealth that Charles has come into- he sends him a threatening letter demanding full repayment of the loan or he would expose him on the bribery he engaged in to secure the title of Holy ROman Emperor- this is significant because its showing Europe is changing- the wealth coming into Europe is turning it more modern.

With this- we start seeing the rise of the middle class. They have some access to money, know how to use it, but they are not noble.

🧠 Big Picture (Lyndeurozone Takeaways)

• Spain followed Portugal but focused more on empire-building
• Columbus’s voyage = turning point in world history
• Columbian Exchange reshaped:
  • Economies
  • Populations
  • Environments

Natural Resources increased mercantilism between countries and transformed economies

🔥 Key Terms

• Christopher Columbus
• Columbian Exchange
• Colonization
• Conquistadors
• Atlantic World

🧠 Final Takeaway:

Spain’s exploration led to global interaction, colonization, and massive cultural and biological exchange, fundamentally transforming both Europe and the Americas.

💰 Major Economic Centers & Trading Ports (Age of Exploration)

🌍 Shift in Economic Power

• Before exploration, Europe’s major trade centers were in the Mediterranean
• After exploration, economic power shifted to the Atlantic coast

🏙️ Early Centers (Pre-Exploration)

🇮🇹 Italian City-States

• Venice and Genoa
  • Dominated Mediterranean trade
  • Controlled trade between Europe and Asia
  • Acted as middlemen on routes like the Silk Road

🌊 Rise of Atlantic Trade Centers

As exploration expanded, new economic hubs emerged:

🇵🇹 Portugal

• Lisbon
  • Major port for spice trade
  • Center of early global trade networks
  • Connected Europe to Africa and Asia

🇪🇸 Spain

• Seville
  • Main port for trade with the Americas
  • Controlled flow of gold and silver into Europe

🇳🇱 Dutch Republic

• Amsterdam
  • Became a major financial and trading center
  • Known for banking and global trade networks

🇬🇧 England

• London
  • Grew into a major economic hub
  • Center for trade, finance, and empire

⚓ Importance of Trading Ports

1. Centers of wealth

• Goods from around the world passed through these ports
• Generated massive profits

2. Growth of global trade networks

• Connected:
  • Europe
  • Africa
  • Asia
  • Americas

3. Rise of capitalism

• Trade encouraged:
  • Banking
  • Investment
  • Joint-stock companies

4. Decline of old centers

• Mediterranean cities (like Venice) lost influence
• Atlantic powers became dominant

🔥 Big Takeaway:

The Age of Exploration caused a major shift from Mediterranean trade → Atlantic global trade, creating powerful new economic centers and transforming Europe’s economy.

⚙️ Economic Development & the Rise of Mercantilist Competition

💡 Big Idea:

European exploration didn’t just bring new resources—it sparked major economic development in industries, finance, and production. These changes, combined with population growth, pushed monarchs to compete for wealth and power through mercantilism.

🚢 Growth of Key Industries

⚓ Shipping Industry

• Expansion of global trade → increased need for ships
• Growth in:
  • Shipbuilding
  • Ports
  • Maritime labor (sailors, merchants)

Impact:

• Stronger navies
• Faster and more frequent trade
• Increased global connections

🔫 Weapons Manufacturing

• More conflict between nations → demand for weapons
• Development of:
  • Guns
  • Cannons
  • Naval weaponry

Impact:

• Militaries became more powerful
• Helped European nations dominate overseas territories

🏴‍☠️ Piracy

• Valuable goods traveling overseas attracted pirates
• Some pirates were secretly supported by governments (privateers)

Impact:

• Disrupted trade routes
• Increased competition between nations
• Became part of economic warfare

🏦 Banking & Finance

• Expansion of trade required better financial systems
• the need to manage state debt and finance trade spurred the creation of formal central banks
• Growth of:
  • Banks
  • Loans
  • Credit systems

Impact:

• Merchants could fund expensive voyages
• Increased investment in trade and exploration
• Helped grow early capitalism

🌾 Agricultural & Textile Growth

👥 Population Increase

• More people = greater demand for:
  • Food
  • Clothing

🌾 Agricultural Expansion

• Improved farming and new crops (from the Americas)
• Increased food production

Impact:

• Supported population growth
• Freed some workers for non-farming jobs

🧵 Textile Industry Growth

• High demand for clothing
• Expansion of:
  • Wool production
  • Cloth manufacturing

Impact:

• Became a major economic sector
• Increased trade and profits

Products brought from Americas and products going to the Americas

From Americas to Europe:

• Tomatoes
• Potatoes
• Squash
• corn
• Tabacco
• Turkey
• diseases

From Europe to Americas:

• Wheat
• Cattle
• Horses
• Pigs
• Sheep
• diseases

Spain Becomes market place for all of this and then it’s brought North

👑 Rise of Mercantilist Competition

⚖️ What is Mercantilism?

• Economic system where nations:
  • Accumulate wealth (gold/silver)
  • Export more than they import
  • Control colonies for resources

🔥 Why Monarchs Became Competitive:

1. More wealth available

• New resources + trade = huge economic opportunities

2. Stronger economies = stronger states

• Wealth funded:
  • Armies
  • Navies
  • Governments

3. Global trade networks

• Nations competed for:
  • Trade routes
  • Colonies
  • Markets

4. Industrial and agricultural growth

• Increased production → more goods to export
• Encouraged nations to dominate trade

🧠 Big Picture Connection:

• Exploration → new resources
• Resources → economic growth
• Economic growth → stronger monarchies
• Strong monarchies → competition through mercantilism
• Increase in pricing due to more goods being produced
• General increase in prices due to wealth being brought by the new world

🔥 Final Takeaway:

The development of industries (shipping, weapons, banking), combined with population growth and increased production, transformed Europe into a competitive, global economic system, where monarchs used mercantilism to gain wealth and power.

UNIT 2

The Reformation, pt 1:

✝️ AP European History – Unit 2

Protestant Reformation (Part 1) – Lyndeurozone Episode 109

💥 Background: Problems in the Catholic Church

By the early 1500s, many people were unhappy with the Catholic Church. After black death the idea of christianity changed

Major Issues:

1. Corruption

• Church officials lived wealthy lifestyles
• Some clergy were poorly educated
• Popes were corrupt- Medici committed simony and made one of their own Pope (Pope Leo x)

2. Indulgences

• People could pay money to reduce time in purgatory
• Seen as the Church “selling salvation”

3. Lack of Spiritual Focus

• Church focused more on:
  • Wealth
  • Power
  • Politics
• Less focus on true religious guidance

💡 Big Idea:

There was a growing demand for reform within the Church.

🧠 Martin Luther & the Start of the Reformation

👤 Martin Luther

• German
• Father knew that the more educated you were, the more chase you had in life, so he pushed Martin towards law school
• After surviving a storm, Martin Luther decided that he would devote his entire life to God and become a monk
• Martin Luther- obsessed with his own sin- thought thinking certain things was sin- Romans 117 was very significant to him
• Romans 117: talks a lot about the Justice of God- in this time justice was about punishment for your sins (hell)- justice to Martin Luther meant not Punishment, but making things right- “if you have a true faith that God is your savior-then you have a graceful and forgiving God… he who sees God as angry- does not see him rightly”
• in this time it was thought that for every sin you must spend 7 years in purgatory
• instead of overthinking how thoughts- Martin Luther now thinks that if you try to be good and faithful, then they will be forgiven- he comes up with this right around the time when Pope Leo the 10th runs out of money( and puts HEAVEN for sale??)

Pope Leo x

• Put on Papal throne by family
• Runs out of money
• He wants to turn St. Peter’s Basilica into the most glorious church there is in Europe which will require tons of money
• THiS is when he starts to sell indulgences
• Indulgences were the idea that after telling the priest your sins, you could either redeem yourself through doing good works, OR you could pay the priests money
• Pope sends out clergy members throughout Europe to sell indulgences

One Clergy member (sailsmen selling indulgences), Johann Tetzel, preaches out where Martin Luther is

Martin Luther decides he wants to debate Johann Tetzel- the way you debated in this day was you posited a thesis and if someone disagreed with you they would debate you

Martin luther wrote 95 thesis about how selling indulgences were wrong

📜 95 Theses (1517)

• Luther criticized:
  • Indulgences
  • Church corruption
• Nailed them to a church door in Wittenberg (where Johann was doing his sermons) (symbolic start of Reformation)
• Martin Luther decides to spread these thesis out with the printing press
• He takes the thesis piece by piece and send them out in pamphlets that are simple and easy enough for commoners to read
• He’s going to disrupt the sale of indulgences
• Johann Tetzels sales drops and him and the other clergy engaging in this notify the Pope of what’s going on
• The Pope dismisses this at first, but Martin Luther continues publishing these pamphlets, eventually Martin Luther demands that the Holy Roman Emperor Charles the 5th calls a council to change the ways of the church
• 1520- Martin Luther is making a name for himself- Pope Leo x is fed up and excommunicates Martin Luther from the church (it was believed you go to hell when this happens)- Luther doesn;t lose many followers

🔑 Luther’s Core Beliefs (Lutheranism):

1. Salvation by Faith Alone (Sola Fide)

• You cannot “earn” salvation
• Only faith in God saves you

2. Authority of Scripture (Sola Scriptura)

• The Bible is the only true authority
• Not the Pope or Church tradition

3. Priesthood of All Believers

• Individuals can have a direct relationship with God
• No need for priests as intermediaries

💡 Big Idea:

Luther challenged the authority of the Catholic Church

• Martin Luther creates his own church - a new branch of christianity called the Lutheran Church (Lutheranism)
• Lutheranism- Only 2 sacraments: baptism and Holy communion- The bible is the authority, not the clergy- all believers are apart of the priesthood, all people need to learn to interpret the bible- the bible needs to be printed in a vernacular language instead of just latin so all ppl, can read the bible- priests could get married (Luther got married and had a family)
• The faith spreads and people like it

🖨️ Printing Press & Spread of Ideas

👤 Johannes Gutenberg

Impact:

• Luther’s ideas spread rapidly across Europe
• Pamphlets and translated Bibles became widely available
• More people could read and interpret religion themselves

💡 Big Idea:

The printing press made the Reformation spread quickly and widely

👑 Political Support for Luther

Why rulers supported him:

1. Gain power

• Reduce influence of the Catholic Church

2. Keep Church wealth

• Confiscate Church lands

3. Increase independence

• Break away from the Pope

💡 Big Idea:

The Reformation succeeded partly because political leaders supported it

⚔️ Early Conflict

🏛️ Diet of Worms

• Luther was called to defend his beliefs
• Refused to take back his ideas
• Chalres the 5th who’s young, calls Martin Luther to trial and arrests him and calls for his writings to be burned, (diet of verms), Charles asks Martin Luther if he said the things he said and if he takes them back- Martin Luther says “I cannot, and will not recant anything, since it is unsafe and wrong to go against my conscience, here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.”

Result:

• Declared a heretic
• Martin Luther is scheduled to be burned at the stake, but the ruler of Luther’s region in Germany, Prince Fredrick the 3rd of Saxony, kidnaps Luther and hides him for many years

💡 Big Idea:

Religious conflict quickly became political conflict

🌍 Spread of Protestantism

• Lutheranism spread across:
  • German states
  • Scandinavia

Why it spread:

• Support from rulers
• Appeal to common people
• Simpler form of Christianity

🔥 Big Picture (Lyndeurozone Takeaways)

• The Reformation began as a religious protest
• It turned into a political and social movement
• It weakened the unity of the Catholic Church
• It increased the power of monarchs and princes

🧠 Final Takeaway:

The Protestant Reformation started with criticism of Church corruption but quickly grew into a movement that reshaped religion, politics, and society across Europe.

Political Side of Protestant Reformation

Why did Prince Fredrick the 3rd of Saxony save Martin Luther?

• The people of Saxony had been embracing Martin Luther's teachings for years
• Political and economic advantages to Prince kidnapping him
• Goes back to new monarchies because this was lessening power of the Catholic Church
• Protestantism helped with this
• Embracing Protestant reformation gave you secular authority

In 1524, throughout Germany, Peasants were highly inspired by Martin Luther- He spoke to them in a way the clergy never had before, in a manner which they understood.

• 1524-1525Peasants began to rebel against their lords for political and economic reasons
• Many nobles were killed, peasants took inspiration by Martin Luther
• Justification buy faith- if what you are doing is done in the purpose of being faithful and what is right, then it is okay
• Happening at the same time Martin Luther is in hiding.
• While in hiding Martin Luther created the Lutheran bible
• Martin Luther does not side with the peasants in their rebellion- he sides with the princes and tells the peasants they are wrong

Primary source: “But since they had deliberately and sacreligiously abandoned their obedience and in a addition had dared to oppose their lords, they had thereby forfeited body and soul as perfidious perjured lying disobedient retches and scoundrels are wont to do. St. Paul judges them saying from Romans” ‘and they that resist should receive to themselves damnation”

• Luther was being protected by the princes and knew that if he sided with the peasants that Fredrick III would be done with him, by siding with the princes his work would be carried on.

Schmalkaldic War

• War between Charles the 5th (catholic side) and the Northern German Princes who embrace Protestantism. Charles demanded that the Princes go back to Catholicism.
• The Princes wont doing bc many ppl from the North liked Protestantism, they also didn’t want to return the lands to the Catholic Church
• War went on for decades- Catholic Southern Austrian German side against the Northern German side
• Charles the 5th is supposed to fight for Pope, but runs into a problem- South and East of Germany growing into the Ottoman Empire (Muslims)- they were invading Europe and they came to Charles the 5th’s door- this is a bad position to be in- fighting a battle on 2 fronts
• Charles the 5th makes a secular decision and tells the Princes to stop fighting with him and instead unite to fight against the Ottomans
• The Princes said yes- The Peace of Augsburg 1555-"Cuius regio, eius religio"- His region, his religion.
• Charles let the Princes decide what religion their region should be
• Political side to Protestantism surviving
• Charles made a political decision for power over religious decisions.

Other Reform Movements

-Lutheranism does not spread out of Northern Germany (save Denmark, Norway, etc.) because it is so closely associated with the Princes

-When Princes chose what religion their region would be, there was no other option to what people could practice

- Huldrych Zwingli: From Switzerland- Contemporary of Martin Luther- Influenced by Erasmus- challenges church corruption- like Luther, he beleived everyone should be able to read the bible, that the bible shield be the sole authority, and that if it wasn’t stated in the bible then it wasn’t true

- Contrasted with Luther because he saw baptism and communion as merely ceremonies and not necessary for salvation, he sided with the peasants during the revolts. Anti-baptists. Zwingli believed priests should be able to get married and have a family. Emphasises simplicity in churches and masses. At this tme Cahtolic churches were ornate and massive- zwingli thought that churches should be small and simple,e or else it could lead to idolatry. He was killed by catholic forces in 1531.

- John Calvin picks up the torch.- A whole Generation younger than Martin Luther- was in heavily catholic France- Calvin was trained as a catholic priest and a lawyer, and is heavily influenced by Luther and formes some different and similar beliefs to Luther and Zwingli-n leaves France cs his ideas are not accepted there- moves to Geneva and starts spreading his ideas about the Christian faith- becomes leader of Genevas reformation-n 1530’s writes book called The Institutes on the Christian Religion (How to have a proper protestant community/faith)- Calvin outlines his ideas on the Christian faith.

- Luther and Calvin agreed on: Authority of bible instead of the clergy, there are only 2 necessary sacraments instead of 7 (baptism and communion), the clergy does not need to be celibate

- Calvina nd Luther differed: Calvin puts a major emphasis on predestination (everything happens according to God's plan), If you live a pure good life, then you are one of God’s chosen people, if you live in the opposite way, then you must not be destined for heaven. Geneva was set up in a way that was strict and puritanical.

Sociological effect: It keeps people thinking about what they are engaged in. Societies are inclusive IF you can live by the standards. Calvin Creates a legal system based on the puritanical code of living. This legal system outlawed dancing, card playing theater, etc. and anything that might lead to moral ‘decay’, sins needed to be punished quickly and publicly. This leads to a new form of Government called a Theocracy (ruled by religion).

In Geneva Calvin established leadership that was dominated by male elders making sure everyone adhered to the puritanical code and violators were punished in a very horrid and humiliating way. Religious dissenters were persecuted and forced to leave. Calvinism spreads all over Europe and the world. When it spreads to different areas it gains different names and types such as Huguenots (France), Presbyterians (Scotland and what is now US), Puritans (Britain). The Netherlands is called the Dutch reform church.

Anti- Baptists: groups of peasants that were rioting and trying to overthrow the government Martin Luther was against. Their leader was Thomas Munzer. Their belief was that adult baptism was necessary since when you are an infant you don't have a choice. If you're an adult you choose to be Christian.

NONE of this would be possible without an increase in literacy and the invention of the printing press.

The English Reformation

Henry 7th- Embraces greater degree of centralization and did whatever he could to weaken the nobles

Henry 8th- takes this on another level w/ Catholic Church

Kings had to compete with two sources of power: The nobles, and the church

Tutor Family tree:

Henry 7th: firstborn son was Prince Arthur of Wales (1st in line to be King)

-Prince Arthur marries Catherine of Aragon (daughter of Isabella and Ferdinand)

- Arthur dies before king so the second oldest Henry does

- Henry (17) marries Catherine of Aragon (23)

- Catherine gets pregnant 6 times and is only able to give birth to a girl named Mary (better to have a son to carry on the line)

-Henry the 8th becomes king in 1809, continues fathers legacy to centralize monarchy- weakens nobles and picks good advisors, works hard to build up a better navy and military, Henry feels like he’ll lose it all since his wife can’t give birth to a son

- “I never spared a man in my anger, nor a woman in my lust”- Henry the 8th (not faithful to his wife)

- Henry has an ongoing affair with Anne Bolyn- she came from a wealthy family and had been in the court of Henry. Henry was in love with Anne Bolyn

- Henry seeks a divorce with Catherine because of a number of political opportunities that would benefit him.

- A lot of religious tension at the time, Henry originally, spoke out against Martin Luther, and was awarded by the Pope as a “Defender of the Faith”. However, Henry sees political opportunity with one of his advisors, Thomas Cromwell (educated advisor over any of the nobles- new monarchies), noticing how secular authorities embrace Protestantism to gain power. None of this would work if Henry doesn’t have a son.

- Anne Promises Henry a son if he marries her

- Henry divorces Catherine of Aragon- at this time divorce was really hard and had to be approved by the Catholic Church, Henry, and his advisors along w/ arch bishop of Canterbury ask the Pope for an annulment, he claimed that he could not carry out the appropriate role of monarch due to his wife not having a child and that the marriage was not holy because she was once married to Henry's older brother and said that they had been intimate, making it an unholy marriage.

- The Pope does not want to grant this divorce because Henry and Catherine had been together 20 yrs, and also because Catherine is the aunt of Holy Roman Emperor Charles the 5th who tells the Pope to not do it.

-The Pope says the divorce could happen if Henry becomes a part of the reformation

- Immediately, Henry creates a reformation in England that has nothing to do with religion, he puts out the Act of Supremacy to parliament that says the English King is the protector and only supreme head of the Church of English

- now, Henry is able to grant himself a divorce

- Henry marries Anne Boleyn, and Catherine of Aragon and her daughter Mary are sent to live in the countryside.

- Henry requires parliament to take an oath acknowledging the King's authority over England, and the Pope not having any. Thomas Moore refuses to take oath and is beheaded.

- Henry starts seizing the Church's wealth throughout England and auctions it to his allies. Henry claims that the church is not using its wealth for Christian purposes. The money allows Henry to not only centralize his government and build a new, stronger navy, but also sells land to the people known as the Gentry (middle class commoners) , which allows them a seat in parliament, which makes them indebted to him.

- Anne Boleyn gets pregnant and gives birth to a girl named Elizabeth

- Henry is infuriated and accuses Anne Boleyn of having an affair and has her beheaded

-Henry’s reformation is political, one of his objectives is to move England towards modernity

- Henry then marries Jane Seymour who gives birth to a son, Edward

- Henry dies 1547 and the throne is immediately passed to Edward (the 6th)

- Mary hates her father for what he did to her and her mother and is devoutly Catholic

- Edward is only nine when he becomes king and gets manipulated by Henry’s advisors

- Thomas Cranmer is the main advisor to Edward the 6th, and hires a tutor named John Check who is a devout Calvinist and is very anti- Catholic. John influences Edward which leads to major changes in religion (mainly Calvinist)

- The reformation laws included:

-All Crucifixes get taken out of churchs

-All religious imagery is to be destroyed

- All services are the be conducted in Vernacular English

-Edward invites his half-sister Mary back to London to be in court.

-Mary kept Catholic priests with her at all times and was allowed any faith she wanted

- Edward only rules for 5 years

- Mary (I) becomes queen

- Immediately, Mary takes Edwards Calvinist advisors, Thomas Cramner, her sister Elizabeth, and puts them in the tower of London into prison

- she re-institutes Catholicism throughout England, she has contempt for anything that is Protestant

- She leads the Counter Reformation

- Mary’s uncle is Holy Roman Emperor Charles the 5th, whom advises her to Mary his son Phillip the 2nd who is also very Catholic

- If the pair has a child (they don’t) then that child will be raised Catholic and England will not stray from Catholicism again

- Mary restores Catholicism in a brutal manner.

- Thomas Cranmer gets a public execution and executes anyone who objects

- This gives her the famous nickname Bloody Mary

- Everything Catholic is brought back, Mary repeals the Act of Supremacy so Protestantism can;t be brought back

- Mary gets a stomach illness and only reigns for 5 years

- After 5 years of imprisonment at age 25, Elizabeth is taking out from the tower of London and is coronated as the new queen of England and is faced at what seems like its about to be a religious civil war

- Extremely clever politically, she won't make one side too happy or one side too angry

- she brings back the Act of Supremacy

- England has a state church called the Anglican church, this increases Elizabeth's power but prevents religious warfare, the church is headed by the monarch but diverts much of it to the archbishop and bishops that will stabilize the religion.

- She creates a hybrid, Catholic- Protestant Faith and reconciles both beliefs

- the Anglican church is a lot like Catholicism but ti had key differences:

-Conducts services in English

-Priests could get married

- Doesn’t talk abt the saints as much

- neither side was completely happy, but they weren’t so upset that they would start fighting (no religious civil war) (Elizabethan settlement)

- Elizabeth becomes one of England's most beloved queens (reigns lasts from 1558-1603)

Counter Reformation

“Counter Reformation”- this term was created by Protestants “oh so now you’re cleaning up?”

-Catholics call is the “Catholic Reformation”

-Wealthy families trying to use their money to get one of their own on the throne (much like Leo 10th from Medici)

- This happens again and again with other families such as the Bourgeois in Spain, being Pope was seen as primarily political now

-Pope Adrian the 6th from Netherlands was a committed reformer but died only after a year, Pope Clement the 7th (rules 1523-1534)

-Clement the 7th is a Medici

- Pope Paul III comes from a wealthy Italian family called the Fernisi and comes into power through Simony

-Paul III has a conversion of ideas and realizes he needs to help clean up the Catholic Church

-Originally was corrupt but has a change of heart, he begins to move the church in a different direction

-Some policies are reactive and forceful, but other policies are proactive

- A reactionary policy is when he restarted the Roman Inquisition

-He looked around for people embracing Protestantism and preaching it

-Pope Paul attempted to ‘clean’ this up

- Paul III approved Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuit order

- Called for the 1st session of the Council of Trent

Council of Trent

-Purpose to bring about a large group of bishops and reformers to see if they can come together to come to a compromise

- Many reformers did not go

-First 2 session of council were defensive and ppl didn't want to clean shi up

-3rd Council (1561-1563) proactive changes came about

- repurpose the church into doing what it was meant to do: care for the poor, heal the sick, etc.

- Council agrees that Catholic traditions should be practiced (7 sacraments, priest celibacy etc.)

-purpose was to define Catholic teachings and work away the problems that had developed within the church

- Certain reforms were made:

• They wanted priests to be more educated so they created seminaries
• Bishops are now going to make regular visits to their churches
• 1559 Catholic church and council put out “The Index of Prohibited Books” (included books by Luther, Calvin, etc.)
• Roman missal- a calendar put out by the Vatican

-bad priests died off

-new priests dedicated to reforms made in council- the beginning of change

Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits

-Loyola comes from Northern Spain, the son of a nobleman, he is a warrior, gets involved in a war with French and people of his region, he takes serious wounds to his legs that will take years to recover from.

-In this time of recovery, Loyola becomes very spiritual, he decides he will devote his life to god and moves to his monastery, work at a hospital, and become a beggar, goes into the woods or a cave and spends time examining his sins and what makes him happy or not happy

- he realizes living a godly life is truly what makes him happy, writes a book that Jesuits follow

-In his 30’s Loyola goes to grade school to learn latin , he then goes to a university in Paris where he earns a masters degree where he gins own sense of spirituality and friends/ connections

-He leads 7 friends into a strict series of spiritual exercises, friends found purpose in strict life

-They want to return to holy land and convert ppl to christianity

-arrive in Venice to take them to Jerusalem and no sailor will take them bc of war w Venice and Ottoman Empire

-Plan B is to go to Rome and meet Pope Paul III (hard)

- go to Rome and give food to poor (teach faith, heal sick)

-become famous, weren’t Priests but were doing what priests were supposed to do

-Pope hears of Loyola and friends, invites them to meet

- When they meet- allegedly, Pope has an awakening and realizes that they are like the model priests, 1540 Pope ordains Jesuit order (society of Jesus)

-Loyola would now lead the order and make it grow

-order takes on militaristic form, the leader of order called Jesuit Superior General, they preached, and could be very convincing and argue well, very devout, followed vow of obedience, poverty, and chastity

-Loyola dies 1556, 1,000 Jesuits, 1566, 3,000 Jesuits, 1600, 8,500 Jesuits, 1700, 20,000 Jesuits

-growth of order same time as church is cleaning up, Jesuits being model priests help with this

-Jesuits establish excellent schools around Europe who educated anyone, embraced medieval religious teachings, but also embraced science and humanistic learning

-went overseas, and went international to convert people

The Wars of Religion

Schmakaldic War: Charles V was trying to make the Holy Roman Empire Catholic but Northern German Princes were embracing Lutheranism for religious and political and economic reasons. Charles starts dealing with invading Ottomans and makes Peace of Augsburg with Princes. His region, his religion. Charles did struggle with this because he’s used to being one of the most powerful men. Charles splits the empire up.

-1555 Charles decides to step down, he splits empire between son who takes Western portion, and brother who will take Eastern portion. Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs help each other through wars with different mission

- to his son Phillip II, Charles gives Spain and Netherlands Netherland was a part of Empire but now they're being given to Spain), also gives Phillip New World- Phillip is supposed to take out Protestantism and Elizabeth II, has Netherlands as a starting point. Bc close to England

- To brother Ferdinand II, Carles gives Holy Roman Empire- needs to deal with Northern Princes, and needs to deal with invading Ottomans

- Spain was at its peak during Phillip II, he uses wealth to build massive navy and re-Catholisize Europe, helps Austrian Habsburgs with Ottomans, wages naval war in Mediterranean to secure greater economic wealth for Catholic Merchants in region, major naval battle

-1571 battle of Lepanto- Spain defeats Turkish navy off the coast of Greece, ends Ottomans economic threat in Mediterranean, showing Phillip what wealth could do, saw victory as an act of God, believed he was invincible until… Queen Elizabeth

- Phillip II married to Mary I, former queen of England, when Mary dies and Elizabeth takes the throne, Phillip proposes to her but Elizabeth refuses

-Now Phillip wants to invade England with massive military just as his father set up for him, Phillip could take military up to Netherlands and go through there to invade England, however it did not work bc Phillip makes it clear he doesn’t want the Dutch to be Protestant and Dutch put up a resistance

- 1581 Dutch unite and create United Dutch Provinces, elect their own King -William I of Orange

- Elizabeth starts sending funds and support to the Dutch

-Dutch good at resisting

- Modern day Belgium stays Catholic, but Northern part is Calvinist

-Phillip II never gets Calvinist region under control, settles with trying to invade England from Southern portion of Netherlands (modern Belgium) so he can invade England

-Geography: Could try to invade England from Spain on ships but would take too long, or could march men up to Modern day Belgium and wait at the straight of Dover (21 mi. To England), put well rested men on ships and invade England from there (he does this)

- England Mounts a resistance to that

-at the time England is not so wealthy and invasion from Spain wouldn't be good, Elizabeth chooses to arm religiously split country and tells ppl to take arm, engages in dirty tactics such as hiring a pirate/privateer (Sir Frances Drake), who steals wealth from Spain to Elizabeth to fight against Spanish, Destroys ships up to a year before invasion of Spanish armada

-Phillip builds up large naval power (130 ships, over 30,000 men)

-Elizabeth gets her military ready to go at location Spanish are getting ready to land, she puts on armor and fights- she gives an incredible speech (armatta speech) “you die, I die” - the invasion NEVER HAPPENS- Elizabeth's gang attacks the empty ships before they get to SPanish Netherlands to pick up men- attack them with dirty tactics, put own ships on fire and sail them into the ships, use smaller ships w/ cannons to blow into larger ships, English pirates chase Spanish armata between Norway and Scotland (North Sea), Spanish navy decides to sail around Scotland and Ireland, they get caught into a strom and sink.

- England sets up colonies, and takes part of Eastern seaboard, Netherlands splits into 2 portions (United Provinces)

-Spain begins its decline

French wars of Religion (War of Three Henrys)

-The Huguenot or any form of Calvinism is disliked by monarchs bc calvinists believed that gov. Should be a theocracy, monarchs believe they are chosen by God

-The Hugenout are not big group but many in Southern France- Thouwa Dynasty of France had issues w/ them, civil war in France ( war of religion) goes on from 1562-1598, times of fighting and peace

- The French Vauwa kings did not like Huguenot cause Huguenots do not like monarchs

-Region of Southern France and Northern Spain called Navar, had become a strong protestant stronghold of Huguenot faith, leaders of Navar called the Bourbon family (looked upon as leader of Huguenot within France)

- 1572- Henry Bourbon, a Huguenot who’s supposed to marry a catholic relative from the Catholic monarch: Henry II Valois, dies and has three sons who are weak, however, they have a strong mother: Catherine Medici, most powerful women in Europe, essentially controls her sons, has reputation for cruelty

- all Huguenot leadership of Southern France comes upon Paris for wedding, Catherine Medici hatches a conspiracy theory to take out Huganet leadership, has a series of assassinations happen during wedding, all Bourbons and other Huguenot leadership are killed

-Aug. 24th 1572: St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

-Word gets out that Huguenot leadership has been killed, commoners of Paris paint white crosses on their clothes and go and start killing any protestant Huganeous they could find.

- Killing spreads outside of Paris- estimated that 20,000 Hugenout were killed

- One Huguenot leader escaped- Henry of Navar (Bourbon)

-The Huguenot looked to him for leadership, lead them during duration of war against “The Catholic League”

- Henry Navar leads Huguenots to victory

- Henry of Navarre takes Paris and proclaims himself a Huguenot king, however most of France is Catholic, right next door in Spain is Phillip II who wants to take out Protestantism, over in Holy Roman Empire there are descendants of the emperors who want to do same thing

- Henry surrounded by powerful and wealthy Catholic monarchs who want to take out Protestants

- Henry of Naver made a political decision to convert into Catholicism- “Paris is worth a mass”, converted for peace, but betrayed his people, Henry has to find a way to appease the Huguenots now…

-1598- The Edict of Nantes- France will remain predominantly Catholic, however, the Huguenot will be able to practice their faith in certain areas without any persecutions whatsoever, ‘religious pluralism’, no one rlly happy, but also not angry enough to fight (very Elizabethan)

- Henry is a politique- puts the interest of the state and government above religious concerns

- assassinated a decade later

- has a son Louie 13th- a child and won’t be able to rule, a reagent is named (rules in place of a monarch if monarch is unable to rule

-regeant that rules France at this time is Cardinal Richelieu

30 Years War (turning point in European History)

-Begins 1618

- Cardinal Richelieu, like Henry IV, is also a Politique, this goes in hand with the 30 years war

- Bohemia had gone Calvinist

-Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II-comes to power 1618- wants to restore Catholicism in Bohemia- lets people of Bohemia know that priesthood and Catholic churches would be coming back (undoes Peace of Augsburg)

- The Bohemians are upset and bring back a medieval practice called defenestration (throwing someone out the window)- they did that to Ferdinand the II’s advisors who came to tell them about restoring Catholicism- major Insult to Emperor- war is on

- Bohemians name a new King

Phases of 30 Years war

1st Phase- Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)

• Localized (within small area)
• Protestants are defeated- Catholics win
• Hapsburg ruler restores Catholicism
• Scares Northern Protestant Princes

2nd Phase- Danish Phase (1625-1629)

• Northern German Princes align around Danish King Christian IV
• Protestant League vs. Catholic League
• Protestants lose again
• Important doc/ law: Edict of Restitution (restored Catholicism to all regions that turned protestant during the Peace of Augsburg)

3rd Phase- Swedish Phase (1630-1635)

• King Gustavus Adolphus from Sweden- invades Northern Germany- reignites war for Protestants- Lutheran King- Military genius- changes a lot of fighting- unique military tactics that pushes back Catholic forces
• defeats major Catholic general Van Wolenstein
• Looks good for Protestants, but then Gustavus dies
• France comes to help Sweden? (led by Catholic Cardinal)- Yet again, this is because Cardinal Richelieu is a Politique- more worried about Habsburg power and wants to weaken it bc that would be good for France

4th Phase- French Phase (1635-1648)

-France leads charge against Hapsburgs

-Now is a war about a balance of Power (all future wars will be like this)

- all countries in continental Europe fought in this phase of war (precursor to WWI)]

- Ferdinand II dies- this causes war to fizzle out

- No real winner to war, but there is a loser- the Hapsburgs

Effects of War

-Famines

-German towns decimation

-Economy collapse

-8 million ppl dead (⅓ of population)

War comes to an end through diplomacy to negotiate a peace agreement

The Peace of Westphalia

-Pretty much gets rid of the Holy Roman Empire

-Holy Roman Empire made up of 300 principalities which all became independent

-Major loss for Austrian Hapsburgs

- 1st steps towards united Germany bc this is when Prussia becomes independent

- There are 300 independent Princes now away from Holy Roan Empire and Hapsburg power

-Religious agreement: Princes allowed to pick their state religion- now people ij their own homes can practice their own religion- beginning to see religious freedom take place.

- Consequences: Europe's last war of religion- other wars will be about balances of power- Popes were not happy about this- lost any opportunity to restore Catholicism to this region- Hapsburg lost a LOT of power- France is now poised to become the most powerful country in Europe

Magna Carta

• Signed by King John i 1215, had to accept it cause he was raising taxes like CRAZY
• King must ask for popular consent of the nobility before raising taxes- sets notion that England will have a parliament

-Elizabeth works well w/ parliament, knew she needed them, under Elizabeth, English economy grew- strong middle class developed (Gentry, wealthy land owners, NOT nobles, dominate the House of Commons (part of Parliament where commoners were allowed to represent to ppl) House of Lords is where the aristocrats/nobles dominate- both groups hate taxation)

Parliament debates bills and taxes

Monarch deals with foreign policy

Domestic issues settled between monarch and parliament

-Calvinists (Puritans) start developing in England, large number of them were Gentry in parliament, vocal on issues of religion and taxation

-Elizabeth dies, but doesn’t have an heir, decided before she passed that the Crown would go to her cousin James the 6th in Scotland but turns into James the 1st when he goes to england

-James does not like Parliament- “ Kings are not only God’s lieutenants upon Earth and sit on God's throne, but even by God himself are called Gods”

Speech to house of Commons intro: “I am surprised that my ancestors should ever be permitted such an institution to come into existence. I am a stranger, and found it here when I arrived, so I am obliged to put up with what I cannot get rid of”

• James and his sons and grandsons: called the Stewart Kings of England- very driven to bring Catholicism back to England (secret goal)

Jame’s son: Charles I becomes King

Charles I

-horrible temper- does not want to work w/ parliament

-promotes religious agendas moving Anglican church back towards Catholicism

-Seen as “too Catholic” by the Puritans

- constantly at wars w/ Spain

- Charles wanted money to fund his wars but parliament would not approve the funds

-to get money, king would call parliament into action- parliament would hear king's reasons and approve or not approve it

-Parliment did not meet at its on accord

-Parliment begins disapproving money to Charles (esp House of Commons)

- Parliament comes up with a document called the Petition of Right (agreement for money and more power to parliament)

-no taxation without Parliamentary consent, no putting soldiers in private homes, no martial law during peace time

-Charles signs it, gets money, then ignores everything he agreed to had no intentions of following measure developed by parliament, no respect for Parliament

-medieval tax that charged coastal cities for maintenance of a protective navy, also applied to inland counties (paid for building army)- ship money assessments

-1636- Charles runs out of money, however he does not want to call Parliament- Charles applies naval tax to the inland counties- sets Parliament off- raised taxes without Parliament's approval

-Charles eventually forced to call Parliament in and Parliament said they would not him any money until he agrees to greater protection of parliament rights- Calres dismissed parliament after 3 weeks, out of desperation Charles calls Parliament back

The Triennial Act- Parliament must be called into session once every 3 years

-Parliment will agree on a law that Parliament cannot be ended without their own consent

-Charles enters house of Commons w military to end session, tries to arrest 5 memebrs and theyb flee

English Civil War (1642-1649)

-Causes:

1. Divine Right of Kings

• God granted political authority to King

1. Thirty Years’ War

• Debt was accrued from England’s participation in 30 years war

1. The Anglican Church

• Henry VIII established Protestant Church of England (Anglican)
  • Done in defiance of Catholic church
  • James I not interested in Puritan demands that church still too Catholic
  • Charles Married a Catholic

-Parliment raises an army

-House of Lords and wealthy support King, North and Western England

- House of Commons, South and East England, Puritans, support Parliament

• Oliver Cromwell- officer in Parliamentary army (main general), leads army to defeat Charles I- unassuming Puritan, leads ragtag military against British Royal Military- gives him a lot of power, becomes a dictator
• Charles Captured at Battle of Nasebee, parliament now in charge of country
• Parliament immediately dismisses House of Lords, House of Commons rules as single house Parliament- Cromwell is the leader of that
• Prides Purge (1648), Cromwell purged house of Commons of anyone who isn’t anti- monarch- Puritans wanted a Theocracy, and not a monarchy
• Rump Parliament- Yes men basically to Oliver Cromwell (dictator), they put forth a vote- what should we do with Charles I?- they voted to behead Charles I (regicide) (67 to 68), the queen and kids would go into exile

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

• Intellectual movement based on observation
• Exploration- Use of maps and exploring world (changes ppls perspective on wo rld)
• Protestant Reformation (questions authority)
• Inventions such as printing press
• New technologies (telescope, etc.)

Copernicus (Astronomer/Catholic Priest)

• “Naked eye Astronomer”
• Doing work to glorify God
• “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres” 1543 (Heliocentrism)
• Says sun revolving around Earth isn't logical, brave thing for him to do
• Contradicts with Old Testament in bible, so ppl thought “geocentricity”
• Dedicates book to Pope Paul III

Galileo Proves Heliocentricity and Faces Roman Inquisition
- Born in 1564

-Early practitioner of experimental method and observation

-works on telescopes

- things invented for military now used for science

-Galileo takes sailors telescope and turns it into something more powerful

- Observes planets, argues that other planets similar to Earth

- Church didn’t like that

-Galileo proves that Copernicus was right, proved heliocentricity to be true through use of telescopes, causes him to end up in a Roman Inquisiton

-In trial he recants everything cs he doesn't want to die

- agrees to go on house arrest for the rest of his life

-Galileo had no problem recanting because his ideas had already been spread due to the printing press

-Protestant monarchs were not against science

Vesalius Revolutionizes anatomy Through Direct Observation

• Andreas Vasalius (1514-1564)
• First to correctly and somewhat systematically identify workings of human skeletal and muscular system
• Worked in a morgue, carved up bodies and based new knowledge on observation
• Father of anatomy

William Harvey Disproves Humorism with Circulatory Discovery

-English medical doctor

-before there was an idea that body was made up of 4 fluids that needed to be balanced- blood, yellow bile, stomach acid, black bile, mucus (blood letting happened due to this belief) (humorism)

-William Harvey challenge the theories of this Greek Physician who came up with this (Galen)

-William Harvey first to correctly describe circulatory system being pumped by heart to get blood, oxygenated blood to brain and other organs

- pre ferm theory

-proves medieval medicine to be wrong, pointing things in new direction based on observation

Bacon and Descartes Promote New Scientific Inquiry Methods

Francis Bacon

• Father of Scientific Rev.- encouraged scientists to experiment then draw conclusions based on data coming from observation in experiments
• Focusing on inductive method
• Says that we will lift humanity with this, proper study of science would do great things for humanity

Rene Descartes

• Argued for a different approach than Bacon
• Believed everything should be doubted until proven through reason
• Believed all knowledge must be investigated according to methods of scientists
• Don't accept things to be true until they are proven as true

Both promoted science

How Women’s lives Changed ( or Didn’t) in Early Modern Europe

• Women were considered intellectually inferior in almost all segments of society
• All marriages were arranged, all segments of society expected women to be obedient, first to their fathers until marriage, and then to their husbands
• Women generally not allowed to have any political power- Queen Elizabeth, Catherine de Medici, Isabella, are all exceptions
• Protestant Reformation going to brign some change for women- at this time the literacy rate in women is rising, only in protestant areas, protestant faith wanted people to interpret the bible for themselves
• Many women in the artisan class after commercial rev.
• Artisans skilled laborers (baler, butcher, etc.)-women who were married to these workers involved in the business, managing financial books, take orders

Religion and Community: The Heart of Commoner Existence

• Every village had a small chruch and usually had a clergyman there- ppl went to short prayer service every evening (Vespers), longer masses Wednesdays, very long mass Sunday (Sabbath)
• Festivals were a source of entertainment, and marriage arrangement could be made there
• Work, church, festivals

From Jousting to Soccer: Recreation for all classes

• Wealthy enjoy sports such as fencing, jousting, falconry, sport hunting, individual sports
• Soccer starts to develop with commoners, in Northern territories, hockey bgan to be developed, communal dances for festivals, communal sports, not expensive
• Sports were only opened to be played during slow times in farming cycle

The Commercial Revolution and Rising Commoner Influence

-Modern banking transforms economy in Atlantic states

- new banksL House of Hunger in Augsburg, Germany- challenge to Medici line of banks

- Bank if Amsterdam comes about- loaning money for pl to be involved in new businesses, New elites appear

-Medicis and Fugers were both commoners getting involved in governing game (big change), regular people that gained wealth

- Gentry- middle class commoners buying land + get seats in House of Commons

How Population Growth Led to Enclosure and Urban Migration

-Population comes back after black death just as wealth starts coming from New World

-greater demand for necessities to live- clothing, textiles, and others

-ppl open businesses that meet demand

-professional standing armies instead of peasant armies, peasants not being taken

down
-Columbian exchange brought in new food products- bring an end to famine

-land owners question why they put peasants on land to farm and oay rent, land owners farm land themselves and make money themselves, everybody needs food

- Enclosure Movement, land owners enclose communal lands and peasants are forced to move to cities

Unit 3

Development of Absolutism

The Evolution of New Monarchies to Absolute Rule

Reminder: new monarchs wanted to lessen power of nobles and church so they can centralize their state and run their country in the way they see fit, wanted to be sovereign, developed professional standing armies and navies (Henry VII, Henry VIII, Queen Elizabeth, Ferdinand and Isabella)

French War of Religion (French Civil War)-

Henry IV comes to power (check notes from before), before he was a noble- scares him bc someone else can come and take throne- lead Protestants to victory in French war of religion (Huguenot)

-Converts to Catholicism to bring peace, but then with the Edict of Nantes he grants Protestants limited rights- ends civil war

-Henry nervous because knows things are unstable, wants to strengthen government further

- was a new monarch- moved to a new form of monarchy known as absolutism, absolute monarchies

Causes of Absolutism

1. Weakened Influence of Catholic Church

• Due to a growing acceptance of Protestant practice and lack of interest in religious warfare after the Peace of Westphalia

1. Economics

• Merchant classes were expanding rapidly during this period of global trade and desired absolute monarchs for the economic and political stability they could provide

Defining Absolute Monarchy: Six Core Characteristics

1. The King has all power over his subjects and their lives and what thye do
2. There is NO constitution or legal restriction on the monarch's power.
3. Divine right- King’s are God’s representatives on earth, therefore obeying the king is obeying God
4. Mercantalism- monarchs want to tightly control the economy, mercantilism becomes gov. Policy w absolute monarchs
5. Standing Army- loyal, highly trained, professional standing army and navy
6. Educated professionals run bureaucracies that handle one portion of gov.

How Henry IV Laid the Groundwork for Absolutism

Remember: Henry IV 1st Bourbon King- comes to power through French Civil War- brings peace to France- noble that took power from monarch- doesn’t want same to happen to him so he strengthens his royal power: develops bureaucracies to control the country and different bureaucracies to handle different aspects of government instead of using nobles.

Starts turning to a new type of noble- not really noble at all- the Gentry (middle class, educated, had money, and owned some land, not noble) “Robe nobles”

-Henry wants Robe Nobles in positions of power, and also wants money. Sells positions in bureaucracy to highest bidder.

-Henry ensures further loyalty with Robe Nobles through “The Paulette”- the Robe Noble could hand the bureaucracy to family members once he was done with paying the fee. Henry IV cuts out the old nobles (sword nobles).
-Henry embraces greater degrees of Mercantalism, has bureaucracy controlling the economy very tightly, and greater degrees of exports (gaining another countries wealth) leaving the country. Minimize imports. ( didn't want to send more wealth to another country)

- 1610 Henry IV is assassinated by a crazed Catholic Priest-stabbed numerous times

-Henry’s son, Louis XIII is next in line but is only 9 yrs old, therefore, a reagent is chosen to train him- a Catholic Cardinal named Cardinal Richelieu is the one to do so

- Cardinal Richelieu is also a politik and does what is in the best interest for the state- leads French in French state on the side of Protestants during 30 yrs war

- Richelieu highlights importance of economy- allows Robe-Nobles have major positions in the economy- allowed Merchants to pay and become Ribe Nobles, started many commercial companies by putting merchants together to form monopolies so that he can control the price of what the monopoly is making

- Richelieu prevents further civil war by being a politik, outlaws warfare between nobles by destroying their castles, supports the rights of protestant

- Sword nobles still controlled a lot in the countryside, Cardinal Richelieu puts a governing official in the countryside which controls government affairs and laws , monarchy has all power

- Richelieu has turned economy into monopolistic mercantilist system, creates professional standing army in case nobles revolt

-Louis XIII considered the first absolute monarch, Cardinal Richelieu set him up for life

Louis XIV’s Childhood and the Fronde Rebellions

-Louis XIII had a son Louis XIV (The Sun King)

Louis XIV

• Inherits throne at age 5
• Since king is so young, nobility decides to rise up in insurrection

Fronde Rebellions (1648-1653)

• Louis XIV flees to Versailles
• This rebellion by the nobles taught Louis to not trust them
• Weakened nobility

Louis XIV used Versailles to Weaken the Nobility

• Louis takes something already powerful and makes it more powerful
• Louis had a reagent as as well, named Cardinal Mazarin
• Louis bypasses nobility for any kind of roles within government, within the bureaucracy, instead appoints wealthy middle class merchants.
• Louis XIV continues selling gov. Offices, works against nobility in a unique way
• Louis XIV uses immense wealth to build out Versailles, turns it into the largest palace in Europe (built in French Baroque style
• Purpose was to keep friends close but enemies closer
• Louis had nobles move into Versailles with him and he treated them so well
• It was just a resort for the nobility they had absolutely no power whatsoever
• Louis appoints wealthy middle class merchants to various positions

John Baptiste Colbert and French Economic Absolutism

• Mercantilism: State-driven economic system which emphasizes buildup of

mineral wealth by means of a favorable balance of trade (having colonies was beneficial for raw material, new markets for manufactured goods)

• Colbert is Louis XIV Chief Minister of Finance (1662-1683) (think about him for DBQ and such)- mercantilist (state makes all decisions)
• Had all mercantilist goals maxed during his reign: Maximize exports, minimize imports ( when u export things to another country, you get that countries wealth in return) (If imports come from that country, you’re getting that country’s wealth in return- don't want that happening), had tariffs of all kinds on imported goods, wanted to increase supply of gold and silver that were housed at Versailles within French gov., limited nobility's power to interfere in economy, they could not engage in domestic tariffs
• Colbert's whole idea were that people can buy everything they can within France, but they would be willing to sell it to other countries because then they can get their wealth

One King, One Faith: Louis XIV’s Religious Policy

• Henry 4th passed Edict of Nantes which gave Hugenout the right to practice their religion in certain parts of France
• Louis does not like that there is a group that likes theocracy and that don't worship God the way he wants to be worshipped
• Louis, a Catholic, revokes the Edict of Nantes (1685)- Edict of Fontan Blue- all Protestant churches were closed, Protestants (around 10% of popu.) told they had to leave or convert to Catholicism- if they left, they had to leave wealth too
• Huguenots are middle class and educated
• 400,000 Huguenout flee France fo Netherlands, England, Brandenburg
• Brandenburg essentially part of Germany
• This is an economic hardship in France bc 10% of popu. Was taken out and they used to run businesses and ran farms, not working anymore
• Unimportant to Louis XIV: One King, One law, one faith

Louis XIV’s Domestic Policies

• Weakened nobility bc Fronde Rebellion
• Strengthen economy (mercantilism)
• Everyone has to believe what Louis Believes

Louis XIV’s War Regrets

• When Louis XIV handed throne to his grandson XV (15th), he admitted that he made too much of war

New European Order: Hapsburg Decline and Mercantilist Wars

• Peace of Westphalia weakened Hapsburgs in Holy Roman Empire
• In Spain, other hapsburgs are in Economic decline
• Louis XIV seizes power from that shift- becomes most powerful monarch in Europe
• 30 yrs war started as religious and ended as war between Bourbons and Hapsbrugs
• Bourbons set Louis up to become so extremely powerful

Louis XIV’s First War: Attacking Dutch Economic Power

Dutch war (1672-1678)

• Dutch were an economic powerhouse, had an economy based more on capitalist than mercantilist ideals’
• King of Dutch Republic kinda weak
• Netherlands (United Provinces at time), booming economy/middle class
• Country doing well economically reason to wage war
• Louis wanted to increase holdings within Spanish Netherlands (Modern day Belgium)- weaken Dutch Economy to make his stronger
• William of Orange future king of England, lead Dutch to victory over French
• Mercantilist ideology caused the war (most Louis XIV wars)

Europe Unites: Checking Louis XIV’s Aggression for Balance

Nine Years War (War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697))

• Real estate: Alsace Lorraine- located in a mineral/soil rich region, sits on the Rhine River area between modern day Germany and France. History gone back and forth between being German & French
• Louis wants Alsace Lorraine- part of Holy Roman Empire
• Fighting against Austrian Hapsburg’s-Holy Roman Empire
• English + Dutch come to aids Hapsburgs (2 Protestant countries helping Catholic one)
• Austrian Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire, check Louis aggression of trying to take Alsace Lorraine
• 2nd loss for Louis
• Grand alliance: Hapsburgs in Holy Roman EMpire, Dutch Republic, England, Spain, Sweden, Portugal
• Countries come together to maintain balance of power- they don't want one country to get too strong and dominate others

War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) (all wars from this point forward are going to be wars to maintain a balance of power)

- The Grand Alliance: Securing Europe’s Balance with the Treaty of Utrecht

- Louis XIV’s desire to take greater portions of Europe sets the stage for this war

-after the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, Charles V splits Hapsburg empire up and to son Phillip II and then gives Netherlands and New World to brother Ferdinand I

-Monarchs of Spain and Holy Roman Empire in Austria are in some way cousins (Hapsburgs), supposed to support each other

- Charles II in Spain dies without an heir, leaves New World, throne and a tone of money

- Leaves it to Louis 14th’s grandson, Philip Anjou (inherits Spanish throne)

- Austrian Hapsburgs upset

- Austrian King/ Holy Roman Emperor Leopold challenged succession and claimed throne for his son

- now there’s war- if France takes over SPain, that will upset the balance of power, other countries agree

-Louis revoked Edict of Nantes

- England & United Provinces come to help Austria again, as well as Prussia

- Lots of countries help Leopold II in Austria- very costly war- Louis XIV last war- harms economy

-Louis manages to hold off attackers on all sides of France (most significant war)

-Mercantalist in nature- about gaining power already established in Europe. Other countries of diff faiths come in to support Austrian king bc religion no longer issue- balance of power

- war settled with a treaty

Treaty of Utrecht

• Louis XIV grandson Phillip of Andrew takes Spainish throne
• Spain and France cant be united at all so remain separate
• France gets territory in treaty they’ve always wanted - Alsace Lorraine along Rhine River
• England takes French territories in Americas (will be portions of Canada)
• England also takes over elements of French economy (specifically salvage trade)
• Austria going to get Spanish Netherlands (modern day Belgium)

-Elector of Brandenburg (Prussia), being named a king in all of this

- New Royal family- Hohenzollerns of Prussia (later become German Kaisers)

Key point: Louis XIV spent all his reign at war, but never lost any European territory (powerful military), however also losing bc Europe worked to maintain a balance of power- largest standing army- 400,000 soldiers

Gustavus Adolphus Sweden

-Military genius built massive profess standing army

- highly organized into ascending ranks, new military tech

- military expansion paid for through increased taxes and expended bureaucracy

- military rev.

English Civil War (review) and Glorious Revolution

In England a constitutional (power of gov. Limited by law, monarchs required to share power with parliament, Charles I) government won out although there was a press towards absolutism leading to English Civil war.

France, Prussia, Austria, Russia, all moving towards Absolutism

Charles the 1st scuffle w/ parliament shown in notes above

After war England became republic called Protectorate (under Cromwell)

On paper, Protectorate entrusted legislative authority to remaining members of Parliament, while executive authority entrusted to council

Cromwell was a dictator

Nearly a decade Cromwell ruled England thru force

Navigation Acts- first established by Cromwell, goods shipped from europe to Britain required to be transported on British ships and with British crew

1660 restoration period, Charles II- married a Catholic (schemed w/ France, didnt work well w/ Parliament), then James the II came to throne (kept appointing Catholics to important positions)

Glorious Revolution (1689) (there was bloodshed but it is named w/ idea that there was none)

Parliament fed up- offered throne to James daughter Mary and her husband WIlliam of Orange-James fled

With WIlliam and Mary in thronje- idea of divine right put to death

English Bill of Rights- limited power of monarchy and only parliament could raise taxes- when parliament passed a law could not be annulled by King

Agricultural Revolution

Crops yielded only enough to survive (two field and three field system)

Turn of 18th century Britain and Dutch Republic changed farming methods

• Abandoned three field system, soil exhaustion a constant threat, alternate grain crops- leeched nutrients from soil with other crops that restore nutrients to soil, the fields could produce crops with no yearly fallow period
• Food output and population rose

Inventions:

• Seed Drill- seeds planted at exact intervals and then covered w/ dirt
• Mechanical hoe: increase efficiency in which weeds were removed from Soil

Columbian exchange effect:

• Many beans came to Europe, and significantly from american came potatoes which became a peasant staple

Transformation of Rural industry

-Cottage industry (making goods for sale in house) expanded, bc fewer ppl needed for farming

Putting Out System

Merchant Capitalist provided raw material to rural workers who manufactured materials to finished goods, Merchant would pay worker and sell finished goods in Market

Market system created increased demand for manufactured goods- ppl moved to factories- wool

Money Economy- economy runs on money

Market economy- production and prices determined strictly by competition between privately owned businesses

Up to this period Mercantilism was dominant economic system of Europe

Adam Smith- The wealth of Nations- critiqued Mercantalism- argued for an unregulated market which was governed by forces of supply and demand

New FInancial practices

Insurance- would recoup in entrepreneur’s losses if something catastrophic happened, entrepreneurs gained confidence to invest a lot of money into new factories and growing inventories of goods

Rise of Banks/ venture capital- speciality banks arose- kept only some of money ppl deposited and loaned rest out as venture capital to be paid back w/ interest

Navigation acts

New products and food from americas, and rise of middle class, new consumer culture was on rise

African slave trade- increased demand led to Triangular trade- three part transmission of goods across the atlantic

Dutch Golden Age

Birth of Dutch Republic

• Eighty years war- Dutch revolt against Habsburg rulers- intermingled with 30 years war
• Dutch won independence from Spain after Peace of Westphalia- United Provinces of Netherlands
• Dutch rejected monarchy in favor of constitution- while England favored constitutional monarchy in which monarch was limited, Netherlands made no provision for monarch and opted for republican gov.m- power in hands of ppl, gov. Did work by means of ppls representatives
• Provensiol gov., Federal gov.
• Each province had an estate- each estate ruled by oligarchy, form of gov. In which a few ppl rule (wealthy businessmen rural landholders, handled domestic policy) , as opposed to monarchy where one person rules
• Federal gov.- less power than Estates, known as States General, handled foreign policy and war
• Dutch invested heavily in ship building- geographical position allowed them to exploit riches of growing Atlantic trade, significant footprint in Indian Ocean trade

Partition of Poland

Poland was gobbled up- weak power surrounded by strong absolutists powers

Prussia didn’t like that Russia was becoming too powerful by taking over Ottoman territory so they told them to take over Poland instead which they did including other powers

Ottoman Empire attempted to invade Austria in Battle of VIenna- lost and Ottomans ceased expansion

Poland annexed into 3 rival powers: Austria, Russia, Prussia

Peter the Great

1682- by the time Peter became the Tsar Russia was still Medieval- feudalistic society

-this upset Peter

-Peter went on a trip to Western nations and then came back and transformed Russia's political ( nobles had to serve in army or civil administration, created system of ranks) and religious (reorganized Russian Orthodox Church by eliminating role of Patriarch and replaced in with the Holy Synod which Peter populated with officials and ministers who would do Peter’s bidding) institutions, as well as cultural things

-Peter required nobility to shave beards and adopt western Fashion

- “Beard tax”

- Peter tripled taxes

UNIT 4

Causes of Scientific Rev (also look at notes above):

1. Universities

- Greek scholarship became the foundation of medieval university curriculum thanks to Islamic scholars who had preserved and amended Aristotelian texts

1. Renaissance

• Wealthy patronized studies into the natural world

1. Printing Press

• The printing press made it possible to circulate new findings about the natural world with great speed to a wide leadership

Nicolaus Copernicus- Heliocentrism, denied aristotarian view of geocentrism Earth Spins upon axis

Johannes Kepler: Laws of Planetary motion

1. Planets orbit sun not in perf circles, but rather in ellipses
2. Planets move faster when closer to sun and slower when farther away
3. Time a planet takes to orbit the sun is exactly related to its distance from the sun

Galileo- built his own telescope

Galileo able to observe details and moons of different planets-concluded they were built out of same material as Earth, not celestial light bodies

All these discoveries challenged church (look at notes above)

Isaac Newton- Law of Universal gravitation- gravity keeps planets revolving in relation to one another, gravity proportional to size and weight of planetary object

Revolution in Medicine (see notes above)

Paracelsus, Vesalius, Harvey- all debunked Galen's ideas abt human body

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was a European intellectual movement in the 18th century that applied new methods of rational thinking and the scientific method to social and human institutions

Emphases of the Enlightenment

1. Methods of science pioneered by Kepler, Newton, Galileo andn others could be used to improve society (rationalism)

• Everything in human life could and should be submitted to the process of reason

1. Enlightenment thinkers believed that the scientific method could be used to discover the laws of society
2. If both of the first two were true, then Enlightenment thought would lead to progress in the human sphere

French Philosophes

Montesquieu

• Not a fan of absolutism
• The Spirit of Laws- in this book Montesquieu argued that separating power into multiple branches of government so that each branch can check the other was the only way to avoid tyranny and encourage equality

Voltaire

• Wrote many works that criticised social and religious institutions of France
• Did ot like religious intolerance (imposed catholicism) in France
• Fan of absolutism- but thought it must be tempered by enlightenment thought
• Diesm- idea that there was a God, but he was uninvolved in human affairs

Denis Diderot

• Responsible for cataloging new Enlightenment worldview through a collaborative work called Encyclopedie
• Atheism- the belief that no God exists- knows abt God, but consciously rejects his existence

After these attacks on religion, religion became an individual and private concern. In this way, religious revival movements emphasized personal piety and individual relationships to God- rise of German Pietism led by Nikolaus Von Zinzendorf- taught that true religious experience was bound to personal mystical religious experience

English Anglican preacher John Wesley created the Methodist movement- after a personal experience with God, Wesley preached in streets, argued that true Christianity was a matter of the heart rather than external acts

Ideas of enlightenment spread through institutions such as the salon, which were private meetings in opulent house where ppl discussed ideas of the day- the less well off discussed similar things in coffeehouses- folks could gather with a good cup of Jo

David Hume (scottish thinker)

• Skepticism- all human knowledge gained through physical senses, our brain can only reflect material reality- since God or creation of universe can’t be interpreted through the senses, then they’re not legitimate articles of knowledge

John Locke and Jean-Jaques Rousseau

• Natural Rights- just by virtue of being a human everyone had rights in which they were entitled
• Locke wrote in his Second Treatise on Civil Government that people were born with rights of life, liberty, and property, and those rights were granted by the creator
• Social contract- Rousseau wrote a book called The Social Contract in which he argued that at the bottom of things, the power to govern was in the hands of the people- ppl give power to gov. w/ natural rights and can take that power away too
• People can only be governed by their own consent and the root of governance does not reside in the divine right of kings- however he thought women were naturally inferior to men

Mary Wollstonecraft objected gender inequality

• In her book Vindication on the rights of Women she argued that women by nature should have equal rights to men and that women should be entitled to the same education as well

Adam Smith

In his book, The Wealth of Nations, Smith attacked the mercantilist policies of European nations- governments should let people make economic decisions based on supply and demand- decisions made in self-interest-not state interest- free market, free trade

Physiocrats (French economic thinkers)

-argued for similar things to adam smith

- Robert Jacues Turgot argued for Laissez Faire economics in France- gov. Should have minimal role in economics

Society and Demographics in 18th Century Europe

Major Population growth- significant decline in death rate-ppl are living longer- due to Columbian Exchange, diets of Europeans became more varied- abundance of food increased as well- improved means for transporting food liked improved roads and canals and other infrastructure projects, new means of storing food so it stayed fresh longer- disappearance of Bubonic Plague

Changes in food supply

Thomas Malthus- did not think population growth was good and that food supply wont keep up with it

• Agricultural rev.- solved hunger problems bc…
  • 1. The two- and three-field systems were abandoned
  • 2. Crop yield increased significantly during the 18th century
  • 3. More land came under cultivation during this time
  • Increased commercialization of farms due to TUll’s seed drill working best on larger commercial farms- small farmers forced to consolidate their land into large commercial farms
  • Enclosure Acts (England)- gave legal justification to large-scale land

Marriage and Family

• Attitudes toward children changed- before children like miniature adults- due to enlightenment thoughts that changed:
• Rousseau believed in the social contract which argued that citizens were responsible for governing themselves, Rousseau argued that such a weighty responsibility required the dedicated education of children-due to this childhood became a distinct phase of development that needed nurturing and attention (elite)- this was not the case in the working class because children needed for survival of family- worked in farms, cottage industry, or in trade
• Nuclear family- Parents and children (away from extended fam.)- men and women needed money to get own household, therefore ppl started marrying later in life

Migration in 18th century

• Due to tech advancements, fewer workers required to work on farms, in order to find work, rural folks moved to city in a process known as Urbanization- cities crushed by onslaught of people flowing in-not enough housing so tenements (hastily constructed apartment buildings, had rooms workers could rent for low price) were created. Cities were unsanitary and filled with crime. Problems were addressed through laws meant to eradicate them.

The Consumer Revolution

• People began buying goods not bc they needed them, but bc they wanted them, middle class can now buy goods previously reserved for upper class, ppl now increasingly identifying themselves by things they buy
• New concern for privacy- before consumer rev. Homes smaller and simpler, fewer rooms- ppl now design homes with more rooms with each serving a specific purpose (ex: boudoir designed for wife of house to be apart from husband either alone or w/ other women)
• New venues for leisure activities- coffeehouses grew in popularity bc increased supply from Columbian exchange and people liked it so they met up there- open to men of all classes- emphasis on discussing revolutionary ideas of day
• In Urban areas rise of spectator sports- blood sports

Reading revolution

• As literacy continued to spread during this period thanks to new efforts to educate children and then abundance of printed materials made available by the printing press, more and more people began to read- kind of books began to vary as well- religious books decreased, books on law, art, history, and science increased- newspapers, pamphlets, encyclopedia
• With new ideas floating around and more people exploring ideas outside bounds of Bible and religions devotional literature, censorship increased to keep them at bay (mainly the censors were religious)
• Literature shifted to focus on enlightenment and commercial values of bourgeois society

Revolution in the arts

• Arts shifted emphasis from the celebration of religious themes and royal power of kings to an emphasis on the private life and the public good
• 18th century, nature and subject matter of art shifted from state and religious themes to themes that appealed to bourgeois society
• Bourgeois society: middle class and emphasizes their materialistic values
• Rembrant: depicted religious scenes (down to earth compared to high renaissance art), also made art appealing to more common ppl
• Neoclassicism- prized simplicity and symmetry

Enlightened Absolutism

Enlightened absolutism describes 18th century monarchs who wanted to retain absolute power but also aimed to shape and temper the exercise of that power by Enlightenment ideals

According to Philosophy beliefs: the best way Enlightenment ideals could shape politics is through a powerful monarch who embodied those ideas

Enlightened Absolutist Monarchs:

Fredrick II (the Great) of Prussia- inherited a powerful army- seized Habsburg territory of Silesia in the War of Austrian Succession which doubled Prussia’s population and significantly increased its power- Maria Theresa, Habsburg ruler of Austria allied w/ France and Russia to conquer whole Prussian territory- Seven Years War- Fredrick besieged on all sides- saved when Peter III came to power in Russia and called off the attack- The great struggle Fredrick endured during war led him to rule with more humane policies informed by Enlightenment thought (“I am the first servant of the state”

Fredricks enlightened policies:

1. religious toleration (although favored protestants when it came time to appoint people to bureaucrat offices), upheld importance of Jesuits as educators, granted unheard of degree of freedom for Jews

2. Legal Reforms: simplified precious complex set of laws- abolished torture as a legitamate means of punishment

3. Bureaucratic Reform (Cameralism)- German principles that argued that monarchy is most effective form of government and all elements of state and society should be subservient to monarch- HOWEVER the state had responsibility to use power for the betterment of society

Catherine II (the Great)

• Hatched a plot to get her husband Peter III murdered and thus became Russia's ruler

Catherine's Goals for Russia

1. Continue to westernize Russia- patronized philosophes (VOltaire, paid for Diderot Encyclopedia to be published in Russia), imported Western architects and artists into Russia
2. Legal Reforms- allowed limited religious toleration and outlawed torture
3. Territorial Expansion- most significant expansion Partition of Poland- agreement to divide entire of Polish territory between Prussia, Austria, and Russia

• Catherine emancipated Serfs- Pugachev Rebellion- Emilian Pugachev gathered rag tag army of serfs and proclaimed himself true tsar- crushed by Catherine’s noble army, after this Catherine increased serf oppression

Joseph II of Austria

1. Signed the Edict of Toleration

• Granted religious freedom for Jews and other religious minorities

1. Increased the freedom of the press
2. Put strictures on the power of the Catholic Church (embrace Jewish freedom)

However Joseph enacted reforms without consulting nobility or clergy-leading to domestic turmoil

Limits of Toleration: The Jews

In 18th Jews marginalized by law

• Jewish enlightenment movement- (Haskalah Intolerance of Jews unfit for enlightened atmosphere)
• Catherine and Fredrick II, despite some religious toleration, rejected any easing of anti-Jewish policies in their states

Unit 5

The Rise of Global Markets

• During this period globalized economy and competition it created accelerated and led to conflict as each maritime power Dutch, England, French, Portuguese vied for dominance
• French, Dutch, and English created companies to challenge Portuguese

Dutch- formed Dutch East India Company (Dutch VOC)- Joint-stock company- first transnational corporation and historians have argued that VOC was the most profitable corp. In history. Successfully challenged Portuguese in Indian Ocean trade- when Dutch took over former Portuguese posts they made natives subservient and unlike Portugal and went full colonial. End of 18th cent. VOC in tatters bc of comp.

British East India Company

• Struggled initially, eventually became stiff comp. to Dutch
• British set sights on India- Mughal Empire in decline and whenever tensions arose British came in and gained entire subcontinent as colonial position

French East India Company

Under influence of finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV formed company

• Vied for power and influence against British in India
• France and Britain got into War of Austrian succession- big outcomes of that war in India was French seizure of Madras which was British stronghold in India- Peace treaty that ended war sent Madras back to British control

Atlantic Ocean Trade

Dutch dominant Maritime trade power in Atlantic- bc of this, British made Navigation Acts- guaranteed monopoly for British merchants and made them wealthy-weakened Dutch dominance in Atlantic trade- any goods being shipped to British colonies had to be shipped on British Vessels

-France Became Britain's chief rival- tension led to series of war- War of Spanish Succession (look at notes above)- France gave up colonial holdings to Britain- Spain granted Britain control of West African slave trade- shift of economic power into British favor

Birth of Great Britain

Acts of Union-united England and Scotland- UK

Treaty of Utrecht gave Britain a ton of power

Seven Years War

After Austrian war of Succession, Fredrick II refused to return Silesia to Austria (guaranteed another war in future)- Austrian Monarch Maria Teresa established new alliances that were set for Seven Years War

• European Theater: The core conflict centered on Prussia (led by Frederick the Great) defending its territory against a massive coalition of Austria, France, and Russia. Fighting occurred primarily in Germany, Saxony, and Bohemia, characterized by maneuvering, large-scale battles, and Prussian survival against superior numbers.
• North American Theater (French and Indian War): Known in America as the French and Indian War, this theater saw Britain fight France for control of North America. British forces, along with American colonists, fought to conquer French Canada and gain control over the Ohio River Valley, culminating in the surrender of Montreal in 1760.
• Indian Theater (Third Carnatic War): The war for India was a fight between British and French trading companies, each allied with local princes. British forces largely eliminated French influence in India after significant victories, including the capture of Pondicherry, solidifying British East India Company dominance.
• Caribbean and South American Theater: The British navy targeted valuable French sugar islands in the Caribbean, capturing islands like Guadeloupe and Martinique. In South America, Spain (which joined on the French side later) and Portugal (allied with Britain) fought over border territories, known as the "Fantastic War".
• West African Theater: The British seized French trading posts in Senegal and the island of Gorée, aiming to disrupt the French Atlantic economy, particularly the slave trade.
• Naval Battles (Global Ocean Theater): Throughout the war, the Royal Navy held a massive advantage, isolating the French navy in port and restricting France from reinforcing its overseas colonies, which was key to Britain's overall victory.

Treaty of Paris ended War

American Revolution (1776)

13 British colonies needed help to gain independence- France helped bc they wanted revenge on Britain- American colonies successfully defeated British but British were still big world superpower

French Revolution

-Commoners had 0 power to change circumstances- extremely hard life- unjust

Causes of French Rev

1. Economic Crises- Louis XIV extensive wars plunged France into debt- only the commoners had to pay taxes from war- people could do nothing abt this
2. Imbalance of the Estates-General- Estates Generl; was representative body of France made up of the Three Estates: the clergy (1% of popu.), the nobility (2% of popiu.) , and everyone else- within this each estate had one vote- clergy and nobility always voted together - 3% of popu decided how life would go for the other 97%
3. Bread Shortages- Famines had made bread scarce

1789 Estates General met to solve these problems-1st and 2nd estates wouldn’t do anything unless it was in their own interest- members of 3rd estate got up and left meeting and declared themselves one true representative body of France National Assembly: first order of business was to grant themselves power over taxation in France-

June 1789- representatives of 3rd Estates tried to get into another meeting of estates general but were barred from getting in so they went into a nearby tennis court and swore the Tennis Court Oath- promised not to leave court until they drafted a new constitution for France- Louis XVI forced to accept new limitation on power, was secretly assembling French troops to crush assembly-

• Once this was discovered a rebel group called San-Culottes stormed Bastille- prison symbolizing tyranny of King

The Liberal Phase

National Assembly drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen which provided for:

1. Freedom of speech
2. Representative Government (constitutional monarchy)
3. Abolished hereditary privileges of the first and second estates

Inspired by American declaration of independence and bill of rights

Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)

Assembly disbanded Church's monastic order, confiscated Church lands, eliminated the Tithe (tax peasants had to pay for church), and clergy were placed under the authority of the state

Women’s role: October March on Versailles (1789)

• Thousands of women marched to Versailles- demanded King and wife (Marie Antionette) give them all the bread they were hoarding in palace- when refused women stormed palace, killed several guards and put head on pikes
• Women forced king to accept The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and would have killed him if it weren't for Marquis De Lafayette
• Women's rights not accepted in declaration- later Olympe de Gouge wrote Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen

Radical Phase

National Assembly broke into factions (most radical were Jacobins)

-in 1792 the National Assembly voted to dissolve itself and create a more permanent parliament called the National Convention

-The Jacobins were able to seize control of the Convention and implemented a more radical set of policies

Policies of National Convention

1. Fundamentally reordered time by declaring that year 1 was no longer the year of Christ's birth, but rather 1792, which they called the Era of LIberty
2. Dissolved the constitutional monarchy which had been established by the National Assembly (executed King- other European states horrified and allied against france)

w/ this crisis Jacobins and moderate members of convention could not agree on a solution: With fractures of movements beginning to show and fearing gains of rev. Were at risk, the Jacobin-dominated Convention clamped hard on any dissent from the French popu.

Reign of Terror

Incited by Jacobin leader Maximillien Robespierre

Committee of Public Safety (40,000 people put to death at guillotine)

To protect France from the enemy state- built the largest army Europe had seen through mass conscription: any man 18-25 required to serve in the army- army charged with protecting rev. And also spread ideals to surrounding Europe

ROT became so brutal some people in Committee began to challenge actions of Jacobins and eventually put Robes-Pierre in guillotine

Reactions to the French Rev.

Enlightenment intellectuals liked calls for liberty and France and overturn of aristocratic privilege- then… things started to go too for

Conservative

Joseph de Maistre- big critic of Enlightenment (esp. Its influence of the ppl to govern themselves)- liked Divine Right of kings- fled France

Edmund Burke (english writer)

Wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France- where he cautioned the British people against the excesses of the French Rev.- defended hereditary privileges and waxed eloquent about Britain's unrepresentative Parliament (stopped English from Radicalizing after they saw what was going on in France)

The Haitian Rev.

Conditions in French Caribbean Saint Domingue were getting bad- island made up of French official, Plantation owners, Merchants, free ppl of color, enslaved African laborers (90% of popu.)- slaves had no rights (worked to death and then new slaves were bought)

National Assembly extended no reforms to slaves

1791- slaves on island planned mass rebellion- hundreds of coffee and sugar plantations were destroyed- Spanish supported rebellion- British invaded land and took some for themselves

National Assembly issued decree that said any slave that fought for French cause would win freedom- slaves already freed themselves tho- National Assem abolished slavery

Toussaint L’Overture
- born a slave and later freed

• Beginning of insurrection- Spanish recruited him to fight for them against French
• L'Ouvre later abandoned them- switched sides- led army of 4,000 against Spanish and British
• 1796- due to L’Overtures efforts France regained control of colony- National Assembly installed L’Overteres as commander of the colony- he defeated his rivals to the south to remain in Control of St. Domingue- began making more decisions independently of France
• By this time, Napoleon Bonaparte was in power- wanted to regain control of colony and re-establish slavery on island- L’Overture was arrested and deported back to France- L’Overtures lieutenant Jean-Jacques Dessaline rallied resistance and defeated French and claimed independence in 1804- officially renamed country its original name Haiti

Rev. not only concerned about liberal reforms- rev. About how France would become a nation, how if it would hold together socially, politically, and economically. With Reign of terror and such- France was unstable

Napoleon Bonaparte’s Rise

1794- Nap. rose to the rank of general and won a good rep. In rev. For leadership of French army in Italy- so successful French directory sent him to fight British in Egypt- failure, but returned to France and led a coup to overthrow directory and put himself into leadership

• Established a 3 member consulate- Nap. named 1st consul (led without rival)
• A new constitution was adopted to solidify changes and was adopted in1799- Nap. crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I (1804)
• Long standing French social and cultural institutions were abolished- very destabilizing for ppl- after violent Reign of Terror, people wanted normalcy, Napoleon promised just that (he reckoned he embodied principles of rev.)

Napoleon’s Domestic Reforms

1. Instituting the Napoleonic Code which reasserted three key principles of the Revolution
   1. The equity of all citizens before the law (men)
   2. Issued protections for wealth and private property
   3. Introduced a degree of religious toleration in France
2. Centralizing gov. And bureaucracy

• Nap created a Bureaucracy that implemented tenants of Nap. code- awarded offices on basis of merit (meritocracy)- most qualified person would receive bureaucratic job

1. Religious reform that came in the Concordat of Bologna in 1801

-French Catholics could freely worship (Church still subservient to state though)

Napoleon’s Dominance

• Nap. claimed to promote principles of rev.: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity- made progress with reforms- however….

Suppression of Rights

1. Use of Secret Police- w/ leadership of the minister of police Joseph Fouche, Nap. secret police worked to sniff out conspiracy or plots to overthrow established order- executed innocent people to send a message to would be conspirators
2. Censorship- installed state-sponsored censors in staff of every major French newspaper
3. Marginalization of women- women lost rights gained during rev.- women could no longer enter into contracts or hold property apart from their husband

Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon stated that he wanted to spread ideals of rev. Throughout EUrope (he kinda just wanted to rule over all of Europe

1806- Napoleon won wars of conquest against Austria, Prussia, and Russia- map of Europe began to change

1810- Napoleon had expanded even further so that he began to see himself not as the emperor of France, but as the Emperor of Europe- Nap. did spread ideals of revolution into various lands- church lands transferred to peasants, slavery abolished, inherited privileges of aristocracy were stripped

How did Nap. administer vast empire?: direct and indirect means

Empire broken down into 3 parts:
1. Grand Empire- France and lands Nap. conquered around France- under his direct control

2. Technically independent kingdoms who Napoleon kept faithful to him by installing members of his family on their throne

3. Nations that were allied with France (Austria, Prussia, Russia)

One place Nap. couldn't conquer was Great Britain- he used influence on Europe to establish Continental System: amounted to a blockade of British shipping- British ships could not dock at any port controlled by French

Napoleons Defeat

Nationalistic Responses- Nationalism: strong identification with one’s own people and one’s own cultural heritage- ex: in 1808 Nap. led campaign to make Spain satellite state of France, Catholic and Spanish Patriots resisted invasion of French army, after French occupied capital city- patriots fled to hills and waged brutal warfare- french imperialism unwelcome- 1812 Nap. wanted to “free Poland from Russian dominance”- invaded Russia with 600,000 soldiers- Russians kept on retreating back and did smth called "scorched earth policy” where they burnt everything in sight- Napoleon retreated but army wiped out with cold Russian winter

1814- Nap. stretched too thin- Nap. heard of attempted coup back home- Nap ended up abdicating throne and was exiled to Mediterranean island of Elba- escaped 1815- returned to France and sought to dethrone replacement Louis 18th- but other states united against him and he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1850 - exiled to St. Helena where he lived rest of days

Congress of Vienna EXPLAINED

• Rest of powers of Europe have to clean up mess Nap. made on continent
• Idea behind balance of power is that no one wanted any one state to be more more powerful than any other state ( Napoleon disrupted this)
• Quadruple alliance- Russia, Prussia, Austria and Great Britain

Congress of Vienna

-Completed work in 1815 after Nap. defeat (massive turning pt in European history)

- monarchies represented in quadruple alliance pushing for conservative measures: emphasis of conservatism during that period was a reliance on tradition and inherited structures- conservative rules aimed to roll back or at least temper the liberal reforms that came out of the French Revolution and hearken back to aristocratic , church, and monarchical institutions that had the patina of age and stability about them

- principle driving their decisions of congress was reestablishment of the balance of power

- France invited to negotiation!- Europe benefited from strong France (not too strong)- however, congress built up defenses around France to keep them in check- Belgium and Holland united under the Dutch monarchy and together they were a force strong enough to oppose French aggression- Prussia received territory in France’s eastern border (keep France in check)-

- Klemens von Metternich (Austrian foreign minister- orchestrated Congress)- congress rolled back borders of France about 20 years as it was in 1792- less territory than Naps reign, but more than start of French rev.- around time Nap. tried to come back into power- some more territory therefore taken but not that much

- ushered 50 yrs of peace on European continent- Age of Metternich

Romanticism (rose up at end of 18th cent.)

-Response to enlightenment thinking- challenged such rational ways of thinking abt world

- Romanticism acted as a balance to reason by emphasizing other means of knowing like intuition and imagination- Romantics held to individualism which emphasized glory of unique traits of each human being

- Jean-Jacques Rousseau differed from enlightenment colleagues by emphasizing feelings and passion above feeling and self (related this to God)- Rousseau also emphasized moral improvement of the self and society, and with all this emphasis on subjectivity, he is typically seen as the forerunner of the Romantic Movement

Romanticism in the arts

• Emphasized: emotional exuberance, imaginative exploration, spontaneity
• Romantic literature- writers felt deeply for own ppl and history- produced works that engendered nationalism- ex: Grimm brothers collected German fairytales and and morality stories- published them under title “CHildrens and Household Tales”- stories helped Germans feel more German
  • After French Rev. it became clear to Europe that rev., war, and rebel. Demonstrated emotional power that comes when ppl r united by nationalism and engage in mass politics
• Romantic poets emphasized love of nature- ex: British poet William Wordsworth believed humans had mystical connection to nature- only by learning depths of created order could humans truly know themselves
• Romantic visual Art:
• 1. Art is the outer manifestation of the artists inner feelings
• 2. Art must display emotion, warmth, and movement
  • Fundamental rejection of the Neoclassical movement’s emphasis on restraint and symmetry- ex: Casper David Friedrich’s “Wanderer Above a Sea of Fog (emphasis on individualism too)
• Music charged by ROmanticism
  • Ludwig Von Beethoven- beginning of career Beethoven’s music was restrained with classicism of teachers- by 1804 Beethoven composed music able to evoke EMOTION

Romanticism and Religion

• Methodism- founded by Anglican priest John Wesley- unable to escape guilt before God- attended religious meeting, as minister read passage from Martin Luther Wesley had an experience that told him that God loved him- Wesley inspired to go out and preach gospel- preached that followers must have a real relationship with God through Christ- manner in which person known they are a true Christain- is by means of a powerful conversion experience, in which saved person encounters living God in power- spreads

UNIT 6

Industrial Revolution (1815-1914)

• Industrial Revolution indicates a fundamental change in the way goods were made for sale, from goods made by hands to goods made by machines
• Begins in Britain- Reasons for this include:
  • 1. Agricultural rev. - led to increase in food supply, spent less money on food, thus had more income left to buy manufactured goods
  • 2. Abundant supply of Capital- entrepreneurs grew wealthy from Cottage Industry- could invest in new way of manufacturing goods
  • 3. Abundance of Entrepreneurs- England rejected absolutism- parliament able to create favorable environment for economic innovation- Industrial Rev. in Britain largely driven by private investors rather than gov.
  • 4. Britain had favorable government policies- business ppl felt freedom to pursue new opportunities when time was right bc parliament passed laws favorable to entrepreneurship- bc of reforms made in 1832, House of Commons had more power in Parliament and represented interest in ppl in working industry- Repeal of Corn Laws: levied steep tariffs on imported grain- cheap grain imported from elsewhere-ppl left farm looking for work in factories in cities- This repeal was only the beginning of a larger movement in Parliament to enact free trade agreements, and in doing so, manufacturing became even more important because exporting manufactured goods became even cheaper
  • 5. Rich in Mineral Resources- coal and iron abundance- able to be transported fast bc of railroads and canals around relatively small island
  • 6. Abundance of Markets-imperialism & such
  • 7. Incentives for inventors- new tech invented to drive Industrial rev.- British Royal Society of the Arts & gov.- awarded prizes for innovation in tech and agriculture

- Incentives to produce new tech:

1. Spinning Jenny (James Hargrave)(1764)- made production of manufactured textiles faster and cheaper
2. Steam engine (James Watt) (1769)- used coal and steam to turn turbines which could then power machines

Both inventions crucial to rise of factory system and Britain's economic dominance

All of these reasons put together meant that Britain both began and dominated the first part of the Industrial Rev.

1851- The Great Exhibition

• In order to put industrial dominance on display
• At center was massive steel and glass structure called crystal palace- in there there were exhibits of all over world

Rev. Spreads

• Wasn’t until after 1815 that industrialization moved to France- then it was slow to adapt
• One of main reasons was France’s lack of coal and Iron deposits- Napoleon laid the foundation for French industrialization but was exiled- Nap. constructed Quentin Canal- major waterway that connected Paris to Iron and Coal fields of North- French gov. Sponsored railroad construction- key to transportation of minerals and manufactured goods
• By 1830s British weaving tech. Adopted in France- established cotton and silk industry in France
• Slower pace of industrialization in France meant that massive coal upheavals that occurred in Britain were more tempered
• As industrialization spread to Southern and Eastern Europe- those regions were slower to adapt:
  • 1. Many of these regions lacked mineral deposits necessary for industry
  • 2. Persistence of old economic arrangements- in places that had not industrialized they still practice primitive agriculture, in few cases, result was massive deadly famines (ie. Irish potato famine)

The SECOND Industrial Rev. and its Effects

Krupp Family (Essen Germany)- starting in the 16th century. Began manufacturing weapons and by time of 2nd industrial rev. They had perfected process of making steel- 1870- states form all over world buyed weapons from Krupp industries- Krupp fam dominated steel industry for century

Manchester- first Industrial park was created- area specifically for manufacturing- specialized in making machines that made other machines- built for industry- inhabitants saw wealth pooling in

Second Industrial Rev. Tech

1. Electricity revolutionized communications industry

• 1840’s American Inventor Samuel Morse invented the telegraph which was able to send communication across wires to distant places using short and long signals- Morse code- 1870s- telegraph wire laid across the Atlantic connecting Britain with US (further lengthened econ. On both sides of Atlantic

1. Chemical engineering led to improved materials for manufacturing

• Vulcanization- chemical process that made rubber harder and more durable- rubber used widely in factories- became effective coding for electrical wires

1. Railroads revolutionized transportation industry- increased commerce by linking distant parts of a country into a national economy and railroad facilitated more people moving from the country into cities- Urbanization
2. The internal combustion engine grew in dominance- 1st rev. Powered by steam- 2nd. Rev powered by gasoline which is how internal combustion engines ran- gas power utilized for farming and automobiles- automobile industry (Henry Ford)- established automobile manufacturing sight in manchester- streetcars transported ppl thru cities- leisure travel industry rose
3. w/ increasing availability of consumer goods at low prices- advertising industry born

Consumerism

-department stores sprang up- shopping became leisure activity

- more advertising, the higher the demand for consumer goods

Economic Troubles

• Long depression- major cause was scarcity of money- paper money backed by gold- gov. Only issued amt. Of paper money that represented gold in coffers- bc of wars and increasing amount of money demanded by consumers to buy manufactured goods, money became scarce- led to banks refusing to loan out money to investors who wanted to build out factories- led to increase of unemployment and global crisis

How did corp. And gov. Respond to a crisis?

Corporations- attempted to create monopolies in their industry- corps who could afford to do so bought up all competitors and when they were last corp. Standing in given sector, they set prices at wherever deemed appropriate- prices benefited corp. But not consumers

Governments- Protective tariffs: tariff is tax on import- when country puts them on imported goods they do so so foreign goods more expensive & ppl more likely to buy cheaper goods in home country- protective tariffs protect country’s domestic industry- when one country out tariffs on another’s goods that often led to trade war where protectie tariffs used in retaliation- not good for consumers

Free trade Agreementsn- allowed nations to trade without being taxed significantly

Industrialization of Prussia

-significant bc economic unification later leads to political unification of German states

- Prussia most powerful of German states- massive deposits of coal and iron so got busy w/ factories and railroads- trade throughout German states suffered bc of political tension between them

- Zollverein Agreement: Lower barriers to trade, barriers like tariffs and customs, and thus to unite German states economically- worked

- National System: engineered by economist Friedrich List- German industry needed to be protected from comp. By Brits- imposed tariffs on imported goods- tariffs would only remain in place until manufacturing sectors able to compete on equal footing with Brits

SOCIAL Effects of Industrialization

• In most industrialized states in Western and Northern Europe, industrialization led to the development of self-conscious classes bc there was a very clear division of labor between who did what kind of work
• Proletariat- working class- worked in factories, mines, etc.- crammed in tenements- had diseases- awful living conditions- left rural farms to go to cities (urbanization)- middle class banded together to provide support many were lacking- created mutual-aid societies in which they pledged to help each other in times of need
• Bourgeoisie- middle class- worked in management jobs, medicine, law- white collar workers- many lived in cities, but many moved to suburbs for better conditions- formed philanthropic organizations to endow public works like museums, schools, and hospitals-others gathered into social organizations like Freemasons (fraternal organization that mid class men join to help each other pursue common interests)

-Eastern and southern Europe more slow to adapt

- social structures remained largely unchanged

Family Life

• Among bourgeois focus became nurturing Nuclear family- (household fam): men worked and women stayed home and raised children- cult of domesticity- status symbol (if wife and kids didn't have to work, u were well off)
• Proliterate- every fam. Members worked- many migrated form rural areas- farmers and on farm children work along w/ parents - what was different tho was that on farm fam worked together, in factory setting fam worked in diff. Places- children had to work cs wages so low
• By end of 19th cent working conditions and wages improved- result of several reforms:
  • Factory Act 1833- child under age of 9 couldn't legally work in a factory- children 9-13 worked 9n hrs a day- older= more hrs- children needed 2 hrs schooling per day- law didn't work out bc families falsified docs so young kids could work bc need money- however law had effect of making ppl aware that kids should be protected from harsh factory life
  • Ten Hours Act (1847)- restricted total number of hours to ten for children aged 13-18- banned anyone under 13 from working at all- once again, hard to enforce
  • When ppl weren’t working, leisure culture grew- parks, bicycle, vaudeville theaters, spectator sports
  • Ppl began marrying for love- prominent among middle class- some working class- Jane Austen pushed this forward too w/ romantic novels

Concert of Europe and European Conservatism

Conservative reactions:

• Conservatism: political belief that argues governments are most stable when they uphold traditional and established norms and cultural institutions-believed humans are inherently flawed and untrustworthy, cant put power to govern in their hands- argued for monarchy, aristocracy, and religion- w. This ideology leaders met at congress of VIenna to restore Europe into inherited structures
• After Naps. defeat, Quadruple Alliance (Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia), wanted to shut down liberal France
• English conservative Edmund Burke- argued authority and hierarchy were aprt of universes natural order
• French Conservative Joseph de Maistre- began as rev. Supporter until radical phase- to him, true political authority must be rooted in religious and moral principles

Concert of Europe (congress system)- A period of roughly 50 yrs in which Europe existed in the image of conservative rulers, in general peace during that time- conceived and driven by Austrian foreign minister Klemens von Metternich (Age of Metternich): believed only by a powerful central gov. Could bring order to various states of Europe

Metternich’s goals:

1. Aimed to restore balance of power in Europe- installed legitimate rulers on various thrones of Europe
2. Took pains to make sure that European states upheld rights and prerogatives of landed aristocracy
3. Argued for the need for organized religion as bulwark of stable states

Conservatism smashes liberal revolts

• 1819- Carlsbad Decrees: outlawed nationalist organizations, forcibly dissolved radical student organizations, removed liberal college professors from posts
• Tsars in Russia claimed to rule by divine right, used secret police, used conservative consensus to uphold serfdom

The Revolutions of 1848

Conservative leaders tired of chaos and violence that arose bc of ppls demands for liberal reforms, and so, having defeated Napoleon at last, Metternich and the leaders aligned w/ him at Congress of Vienna sought to rock back those reforms

Problem was: not everyone happy w/ conservatism

Greek war of Independence 1821- Greece ruled by conservative Ottomans in 1st pt of 19th cent- for 11 years Greek nationalist engaged in series of rebellions to gain independence- Greeks initially lost, but Britain, France and Russia came to help them win- helped them bc they saw opportunity to weaken Ottomans (shared enemy) and took it- Greece won independence in 1832

Decemberist Revolt in Russia

December 1825- Tsar Nicholas I rose to power after his brother Alexander I - w/change in throne , group of liberal Russian officers called Decemberists who attempted a coup- revolt were crushed and Nicholaus increased use of secret police after

July Revolution in France

Chalres X- conservative monarch- wanted to bring France back to pre-rev. Structures- July 1830- stripped middle class of voting rights and made censorship efforts on press- response: middle class liberals and working class ppl flooded capital streets and staged insurrection, for 3 days rioting and fighting in streets- Charles X fled- Louis Phillippe then came into power- restored some of what Charles took away but still conservative

Revolutions of 1848

-began in France: with Louis- Phillippe maintaining conservative status quo, many ppl began demanding a more liberal gov. - bread shortage, ppl even more angry- took to streets and Kings military force killed 50- in response Parisians flooded streets and put massive barricades for protection- Louis Phillipe abdicated throne- provisional gov. Restored French Republic- enacted liberal provisions demanded by ppl- class division weakened gov. Immediately

- Major disagreements between liberal and socialists:

- Socialists pushed for government-sponsored workhouses which would give employment to those out of work, as a result of their efforts, many of these were established across France

- In next election, majority of middle class men elected to National Assembly and they shut down most workhouses- result was uprising in streets- Nation Assembly completed new constitution- provided for strong executive- elected Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew, Napoleon III

German states

• Inspired by what they saw in France, revolutionaries in Prussia and other German states began to demand more liberal reforms as well, including constitutional reforms and voting rights, most of all unification of German states
• King of Prussia Frederick William IV suppressed rev. But agreed to make some of the reforms liberals demanded
• Frankfurt Assembly- delegates drafted new constitution that would unify the German states- conservative monarchy divided delegates along class and party lines- couldn't come to significant decisions- Frederick WIlliam refused to accept constitution

Austrian Empire

-Austrian Empire home to many different ethnic groups, all of whom, were taken by a wave of nationalism, longed for the right of self-rule

- various groups revolted but were defeated by allied Austria and Russia

Revolution in Russia (1905)

• Tsar Alexander II distressed at Russia's loss in Crimean war- created reforms
• Reforms:
  • 1. Emancipated the serfs of Russia
  • 2. Created independent courts which ensure equality before the law for all Russians
  • 3. Modernized Russia’s military by increasing Russia’s industrial capacity

Alexander II assassinated- successor Alexander III not interested in liberal reforms, but wanted to industrialize

• Alexander's finance minister Sergie Witte enacted protective tariffs to boost domestic purchases and placed Russian currency on gold standard
• Revolution of 1905:
• Russians demanded a more liberal gov.- under pressure Alexander appointed witte to draft reforms:
• October Manifesto:
• 1. Universal suffrage for men
• 2. Citizenship to all Russians
• 3. Freedom of speech
• 4. Representative body called the Duma

Ideologies of Change & Reform Movements

Social and political disruption at the end of the 18th cent. And start of 19th.

• Part of the disruption was due to massive shift in power and social structures that came along with Industrial Rev. Part of it was due to significant rupture in the status quo caused by French Rev. Yet another part was caused by suppression of nationalist revolts by states during the conservative Age of Metternich
• Liberalism
  • Enlightenment idea
  • Highlights natural rights/popular sovereignty
  • Limited gov.
  • Enlightened self-interest
  • Jeremy Bentham- developed philosophy called utilitarianism, which argued that actions should be judged based on whether they increase the happiness of those affected by the action
  • John Stuart Mill- emphasized working not online for individual happiness- but the happiness of society as a whole
  • Liberalism shifted to the elite class bc it kept gov out of their business
  • Some liberals argued that fundamental rights like the right to vote should be limited to those that owned land, because they were the ones with the real stake in society- Chartism pushed back on this - universal male suffrage and universal property ownership
  • Women seldom showed up until… John Stuart Mill’s- The Subjection of Women- argued women ought to stand upon equal part w/men
  • In Franc- Flora Tristen- worked for rights of workers-laid foundations for extending suffrage to women

Socialism

• Ideology that demands that a society’s means of production should be owned by the community as a whole, not private individuals

Utopian Socialism

• Henri de Saint-Simon: said society should be given to workers and taken from “parasites” aristocracy/ church who produce nothing of value for world- if worlds institutions was in hands of workers- they would organize just societies- Charles Fourier and Robert Owen- attempted to put these ideas into practice- “intentional communities”- in Scotland

Marxism- Scientific Socialism

• Karl Marx
  • Distressed at injustices- believed Utopian socialists failed bc they didnt understand how Capitalism worked
  • Aimed to produce socialism up to same standard and rigor that scientists used in descriptions of natural world
  • Marx and Friedrich Engels published ideas in influential book known as The Communist Manifesto
  • According to Marx and Engels- history obeys laws as the physical world obeys the laws of physics- therefore history moved through patterns and stages until it reached its ultimate goal- driving force of history is class struggle over economic wealth- Industrialization had exacerbated the division between two classes: bourgeoisie and proletariat, and thus a new social arrangement was necessary- bourgeoisie exploited proletariat for their own benefit- once Proletariat became conscious of this- they would rise up in an inevitable violent revolution and overthrow bourgeoisie- end class struggle
  • Marxism had equal rights for men and women- some women became marxist leaders- Germany- Clara Zetkin led charge against privileges of bourgeoisie and worked on reform on behalf of women- polish Rosa Luxemburg worked to secure rights in working class and led rev.

Anarchism

Belief that all forms of governmental authority were unnecessary and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation

• In Russia- Mikkhail Bakunin- Russian revolutionary who argued that secret societies should lead revolutions to destroy state and replace it with self governing workplaces and communes
• In France Georges Sorel- once ppl rose up and destroyed gov authority- all properties should then be transferred to labour unions (Syndicalism)

Social Reform in the 19th cent.

Mass-Based Political Parties

• As European nations extended the right to vote to more and more ppl, political parties had to appeal to more voters’ interests to win offices
• In England:
  • Conservative party- cared abt interests of landed elite
  • Liberal Party- represented interests of working class- more working class ppl got to vote- Liberal party grew- enacted policies for education and public health benefits
• Germany:
  • Social Democratic party- built on marxists principles of class struggle- worked to improve the lives of the German working class- some believed in inevitable rev. Like marxist- others believed social reforms will help alleviate class struggle
  • Before turned into single party- two independent labor unions
    • General German worker’s association
    • Social Democratic Workers Party

Labor Unions

• Promoted social and economic reforms- some turned into political parties
• Labor unions gained right to strike- match industry,doc workers

Women’s Rights

Barbara Smith Bodichon- gathered group of women who became known as Ladies of Langdon Place- extend voting rights to women and recognize women’s rights to property

Flora Tristan- fought for women’s equality in France Utopian Socialist

Britain- Women’s Social and Political Union- Pankhurst family

• 1908- significant rally for women’s suffrage- London’s high park- ppl put in jail
• 1918- Parliament passed law enabling men over 21 to vote and women over 30

Religions Reformers

Sunday school movement-aimed to provide education for working class children- movement was a massive success- as their children learned, adults learned- lead to more literate and empowered society

Abolitionist Movement- sought to ban slavery- had most success in England- William Wilberforce- 1838- slavery abolished across British Empire

Governmental Reform Programs in Europe

• Mid. 19th cent. w/ significant problems of overcrowding and crime created by urbanization, ppl began to demand liberal reforms of their gov.- ppl wanted gov. To go from Laizzes-Faire- into Interventionalist
• REFORMS:
  • 1. Public Health- Edwin Chadwick sought reform for poor- one significant factor for the remaining poor was disease- Britain built modern sanitary systems in Public health legislation- pop. among ppl
    • Since many reforms were policies of Britain’s Liberal Party, they grew to have a majority in Parliament by 1906
  • 2. Urban Planning- Nap. III charged Georges Haussmann inn tearing down old Paris and building a new one- old Paris overcrowded and filled w/ disease- Haussmann widened boulivards (limited revolutionaries from building barricades)- public parks- one one rich side one on poor side- installed sewers and aqueducts- new Paris being model for other European countries
  • 3. Professional police forces- overcrowding bad- so govs began training and hiring professional police forces to keep peace- govs began to reform prison systems as well- Prisons now segregated by gender and prisoners had education opportunities
  • These reforms led by govs, although they were inspired by public opinion, prominent individuals, and charity organizations

Education Reforms (1870-1914)

Compulsory Education laws: Boys and girls ages 6-12 through school

• 1. Keep public order
• 2. Nationalism (shape generation of children into patriots- with everyone learning the same language and same history, this had the effect of creating a more integrated popu.
• 3. Economic Growth- high paying jobs becoming more technical and specialized- education allowed students to be more suited for those jobs
• Kindergarten (German)- Freindrich Froebel- children ought to be educated primarily through play- children could engage in play based activities- rev. Of 1848 in German states cause gov to shut them down, but idea spread to other European states

UNIT 7

NATIONALISM, Explained

The Nation-State is born

• Nation- people who share language and culture
• State- land in which they live surrounded by borders on a map and the gov that rules over it
• More Europeans demand own state w/ own ppl

Causes of Growing Nationalism

1. Romantic Idealism (Les Mis. Grimm Brothers)
2. Liberal Reforms (Nap. III, opened way for international trade w/ foreign markets, boosted economy, increased male suffrage)
3. Political Unification- Giuseppe Mazzini- pushed to unite Italy into single nation state- “Young Italy” (unification movement-unsuccessful but set stage for unification later)
4. Racialism- idea that one race is superior to another- positive side- Pan-slavic movement- dark side- anti semitism

Anti- Semitism

Racialist beliefs again st the Jewish ppl

• Dreyfus Affair- Alfred Dreyfus-Captain of French army- happened to be Jewish- 1894 accused of treason for allegedly leaking info to Germans- tried and found guilty- affair divided French society- some argued he was being accused just cs he was Jewish-others believed charges bc he WAS Jewish- Dreyfus pardoned after 10 years- resurrected anti-semitism
• Pogroms- Jews evicted from homes and attacked w/o reason

Zionism

• Jewish Nationalistic movement fought against anti-semitism
• Theodor Herzel- German Jew argued in 1895 they should have a land of their own- said that land should be ancestral home in Palestine- origins of nation of Israel

Nationalism and Neoconservatism

Otto Von Bismarck of Prussia

• Harnessed German nationalism as Prussia's foreign minister and then Prime minister to take steps towards German unification

Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary

• After revs of 1848 Austrians tried to suppress rising Hungarian nationalism- compromise was to create a dual monarchy- stabilize state by re-configuring their concept of national unity

National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions

The Crimean War- 1853- broke concert of Europe peace to an end

• Started over religious tension in the Ottoman Empire (already beginning to decline as a major power in Europe)- Nap. III pressured Ottoman Sultan granted special privileges to Roman Catholics living in Jerusalem - Russia wanted same privileges extended to Orthodox Christians (nope)- both France and Russia, though they were combatants in war, had a similar desire to weaken Ottoman Empire, which was already growing weak bc of various nationalist movements- Russia wanted access to Crimean Peninsula (prime warm water port for shipping and receiving)- war broke out
• One side was Russia- called up ally Austria who declared neutrality- refused to help
• On other sides were Ottomans supported by Britain and France

Consequences of War

• The Crimean War effectively broke up the concert of Europe which had kept peace and the balance of power since its inception
• Britain and Russia turned inward and withdrew from continental affairs after war- created conditions in which leaders in Germany and Italy can seek the unification of their states

Italian Unification

Count Cavor- Prime minister of piedmont reion of Italy in 1852- nationalist of Italian Peninsula looked to Piedmont region to lead way for unification

• Cavor shrewd politician - infrastructure programs in Piedmont generated kind of wealth that allowed him to assemble massive army- Cavor still faced obstacles though such as Austria and France didn't want to give up states they controlled
• Cavor promised Nap. III that if he helped him drive Austrians out of Northern Italy then France could keep what they held on Italian peninsula along with a couple of other territories- Nap. didn’t do all he said-Cavor enraged
• Northern Italian regions taken over by nationalists- agreed to join Piedmont- Northern Italy unified
• Southern Italy- Giuseppe Garibaldi- military leader- led men called red-shirts to unify southern region- after united southern Italy, gave over sovereignty to ruler of North, Victor Emmanuel II
• Italian peninsula unified except for Rome (under control of France)- after Franco-Prussian war in 1870 Nap. II withdrew troops from central Italy to go fight elsewhere- Italian unification complete!

German Unification

-during 1848 rev., ppl wanted unified Germany- got stamped out

- need a strong ruler from a strong state…

Otto Von Bismarck

• Master of realpolitik- a way of political maneuvering that sought practical results- instead of asking what is right or moral thing to do- practitioner of realpolitik asks what is the best action for me to take in order to get what I want (Machiavellian)
• Chancellor of Prussia (most powerful German state at the time)- Bismarck (like Cavor) introduced reforms and with increasing Prussia's wealth bulked up army

Wars of German Unification

1. Prussian-Danish War (1864)

• In North 2 German provinces controlled by Denmarck- Bismarck aimed to take back territories and make them properly German- Austria helped in cause- immediately successful- one province went to Prussia- one went to Austria- Bismarck had no interest in Austrian rule over German provinces

2. Austro-Prussian War (1866)

• • Before war broke out, Bismarck skillfully negotiated non-interference treatise major European powers like Russia and Britain because he didn’t want them coming in and messing with plans
  • Bismarck provoked fighting between two provinces that brought Prussia and Austria into war
  • Bismarck thought if regional struggle broke out then German states would be forced to choose sides between Prussia and Austria- exactly what happened
  • Northern German states chose to back up Prussia

Franco-Prussian War (1870)

- Bismarck thought that in order to unify Southern German states to North was to fight common enemy-France

- Bismarck falsified a document where a Prussian diplomat insulted Nap III, “accidentally” leaked it to France

- Nap. III declared war on Prussia- worked according to Bismarck’s plan

- German provinces rallied to Prussia's defense and defeated France

-Kaiser Wilhelm I crowned king of Germany and unification was complete

- 1871- Bismarck appointed as Chancellor of united German state- main goal= strengthen Germany- alliances w/ other states

Bismarck’s Alliances

1. Three Emperor’s League- 3 states would control Eastern Europe- esp. Balkans (becoming increasingly unstable)- collapsed 1887

• Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia

1. Reinsurance Treaty- promised to remain neutral if either got into a war unless it was Germany vs. France or Russia vs. Austria

-Russia and Germany

1. Triple Alliance (goes to WWI)- increasingly isolate Germany’s chief rival France

• Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

By the time Bismarck was dismissed as chancellor in 1890, Europe was a collection of mutually antagonistic alliances, which is going to make negotiation and flexibility between two sides almost impossible

Tension in Balkans

• Driven by growing nationalist sentiment
• Bismarck organized Congress of Berlin (1878) to solve problem
  • Major powers decisions didn’t consider nationalist desires for self-rule in Balkans- only considered balance of Power with Great powers
  • Congress increased tension in Balkans
  • Balkans- multi-ethinic region- wanted to unite under their own states and be free of Austrian, Russian, Ottoman rule- in First and Second Balkan Wars, previous alliances split up- battles cemented divisions that remained during WWI

Darwinism & Social Darwinism Explained

Charles Darwin- Englishman who gained theological education at Cambridge- had deep interest for Geology- volunteered for scientific expedition sponsored by royale navy- purpose to study plant and animal life in pacific and south americas-As Darwin studied natural world and processes in remote locations- he began to doubt God’s creation of universe in special act of divine power- observed that species evolved over time in response to changing environment

On The Origin of Species Darwin argued that plant and animal species evolved by means of natural selection- weather species that did not adapt would die out- stronger species survived- “survival of the fittest”

1871- The Descent of man- Applied the principles of evolution and natural selection to human race claiming that humans had evolved from lower forms of animals

Social Darwinism

• In the 2nd half of 19th cent Some ppl began applying principles of organic revolution to social order
• Herbert Spencer- British philosopher who argued that just as organisms evolved over time and “survival of fittest” applied to social realm- strong societies were ones that adapted and thrived while weak societies were destined to fade away under principle of natural selection
• Spencer lived in glory days of British Industrial world dominance
• Survival of the fittest essential law of nature, why would anyone have any moral objections to strong societies eating weak societies?
• Socialism adopted by nationalists- dire consequences
• Ex: in Germany Houston Stewart Chamberlain British then became German citizen- argued that Germans were pure ancestors of the Aryans who were the true Genesis of western culture- said therefore Aryan race should prepare themselves to fight and eliminate influences of “lesser” races such as Jews, Asians, and Africans

The Age of Progress and Modernity

Positivism

• Idea that any rational conclusion must be able to be scientifically verified or provable through mathematical quantification- truth can only be known through science and math
• Threat to revealed religion

Realtivism

• Since Positivism obliterated the idea that there was one overarching truth that applied to everyone everywhere, that meant that all truth was relative- “whats true for you might not be true for me”- no truth objective- rather relative- m “blind men and relative”

Modernism

On one hand, advances in science are creating significant strides in knowing world truly, but on other, the further science advanced, the more uncertain things became

Irrationalism

• Focused on Irrational impulses of human nature
• Insisted human life and decisions could not be explained by rational postulates- but rather had to focus on human instinct called the spirit
• Freidrich Nietzsche argued that reason plays small role in human life and that most ppl governed by passions and based instincts
• Nietzsche believed ppl were enslaved to Christian moral ethic that stifled creativity under ethical obligations
• Nietzsche claimed that God was in fact dead, that Europeans of his age killed him, and that created the possibility of liberation of humanity
• French philosopher- Henri Bergson, argued that science is good for attaining practical knowledge of world- then argued that science breaks down when trying to capture essence of reality- reality, Bergson argued, could only be expressed intuitively, not analyzed scientifically- such philosophies taught societal progress was achieved not mainly by rational and scientific postulated, but through struggle and conflict

Ideas Applied to new field of Psychology

Sigmund Freud- argued that human behavior was governed and determined not thru rational choice- but rather by subconscious of person shaped by childhood experience

• Human decisions are largely the product of all those childhood traumas that you have repressed and are struggling to make it back to conscious awareness
• Freund developed method for tracing links from conscious to subconscious through psychoanalysis- advanced laid groundwork for field of psychology

New developments applied to Natural Sciences

• Physicist Max Planck- before him, prevailing theory of atoms and atomic structure was that they were hard bits of matter that behaved predictably- Planck discovered that atoms radiated heat not in constant flows, but in erratic packets called quanta- Quantum Mechanics showed that atoms behaved irrationally- the world at the atomic level, was actually chaotic and unpredictable

Second wave of Imperialism, explained- New wave of European imperialism (when one country extends political dominance over another) focused on Africa and Asia

Motivations:

• 1. Economic- needed raw materials and markets- once nation used up own resources, went to other areas to get them- also needed people to buy manufactured goods- take over other countries to open new markets in other places- ex: Aftermath of Sepoy rebellion in India (1857)- British took control and exploited Indians to gain valuable raw material such as cotton- 300m ppl living in India- British could sell manufactured textiles to them, wealth pouring in British colonized places in west Africa and huge swath of territory in eastern side of continent- in Africa, British mainly interested in gaining raw materials like coal, oil, and copper-
• British also looked at China and engaged in Economic rather than political imperialism- British trade w/ Chinese were out of bounds- British wanted Chinese tea, China didn't want stuff from Britain, money flowing into China but not Britain= problem- British began smuggling highly addictive drug called Opium from India- Chinese became hooked-
• 1839 Chinese gov seized 20,000 lbs of imported Opium and destroyed it

1st opium war between Britain and China

• Chinese slow to industrialize-Britain super industrialized
• British won war

2nd Opium war

• Included France- forcibly opened trading rights into China

2. (2nd motivation for imperialism) Political- several European nations clamoring for territory in Africa- French, Dutch , Belgians= Scramble for Africa- created tensions among states- once interior of Africa mapped by agent of Belgian King Leopold, states raced to claim territory

3. Belief in Racial Superiority- by late 19th cent. Social Darwinism taken full root and provided motivation for strong nations w/ advanced civilizations to take over weak nation with primitive civilizations- to Europeans imperialism was good for colonized nbc they got access to best culture world had to offer- White Man’s Burden by Rudyard Kipling exemplifies this

European Advantages giving upper hand to resistance:

1. Advanced Weaponry due to Industrial rev.- guns updated to include Rippled Barrel (spiraled groves cut along inside to increase accuracy of shot)- Minie Ball (conical bullet which was more accurate and did way more damage than traditional musket ball)- Machine gun (could fire hundreds of rounds at great speed
2. New Communication and Transportation tech. - enhanced by speed of telegraph and ability to run cables under water at great length- enabled coordination in conquering territory and maintaining power- once place were conquered- nations built up infrastructure such as railroad so raw materials and manufactured goods could be transported at great speed
3. Advances in medicine- Europeans hadn’t pushed into Africa before bc of Malaria once discovered Quinine could fend off disease, Europeans invaded

-Louis Pasteur discovered Germ theory of disease- ppl got sick and infected bc of tiny micro- organisms called germs- new rev. In hospital care in which anti-septics and cleanliness prioritized meant european troops could be vaccinated against diseases- remain healthier on battlefield and better chance of injury survival

19th Century Arts & Culture

Themes of Romantic Art:

• 1. Emotion- ex: Christ on the Sea of Galilee- Eugene Delacroix
• 2. Nature-Ex: Seashore by Moonlight- Caspar David Friedrich
• 3. Individuality- Ex: Wanderer Above a Sea of Fog- Friedrich
• 4. Intuition- idea that a human being can understand world immediately without reason first- William Wordsworth- poetry an oade to glory hidden in every day objects- meadow, path, wildflower etc.- emphasizes intuitive sense of world
• 5. Supernatural- William Blake- devoted poetic work to plumb depths of heaven and hell- emphasis on feeling of faith
• 6. National Histories- some art inspired by nationalist sentiment- Ex: Francisco Goya- The Third of May- portrayal of Spanish rebels being executed by French forces in their conflict with Napoleon- Russian composer Tchaikovsky- wrote symphonies and ballets with interweaving harmonies and such- increased emotional experience of audience-Ex: 1812 overture- written to glorify Russians who successfully held off Nap. from invasion in Russia

Realism

• Realist artists sought to portray the world as it was, more specifically, the world of everyday people as it was
• Begun and led by French painter Gustave Courbet- Ex: The Stone Breakers
• Jean-Francois Millet- Ex: The Cleaners- dignified peasant work in a way wider society did not
• French Rioter Honore de Balzac- paved way for modern novel- characters common and complex- influenced Charles Dickens- wrote novels with peasantry and working class- critique of Industrial Rev. environmental and social degradation

Modern Art

• As technology of photography was gaining widespread use, painters no longer felt the need to produce their subjects in realistic fashion but instead shifted to abstract, subjective interpretations of subjects

Impressionism

• Emphasis on light and colors- ex: Claude Monet- Haystacks
• Visible brushtrokes-create a “fleeting” feeling

Post Impressionism

• Moved towards a more symbolic use of color and light- Ex: Portrait of Ambroise Vollard- Paul Cezanne
• Vincent Van Gogh- Starry Night- not accurate (realistic), but u can feel movement and awe it provokes

Cubism

• Subject of paintings almost nonsensical
• 3D objects in 2D
• Pablo Picasso- ex: Woman with a Mustard Pot

Imperialism’s Global Effects

• Diplomatic Tensions
• Europeans got to carving up African quickly: Raw Materials, New Markets
• Tensions grew- war could break out any moment

1884- Berlin Conference (called by Otto von Bismarck)

• Series of meetings in which imperial powers of Europe could carve up Africa peacefully through discussion and negotiation
• Africans not invited

Tensions flared up again

Fashoda Crises

• Both Britain and France wanted to connect African empires via railroad- problem: Mahdist Sedan owned by neither- both nations sent military forces there and where on brink of war- French withdrew not only bc they were outnumbered, but because of growing German influence in Africa n europe- France and Britain signed Entente Cordiale (1904)- established friendly relations between two nations

Moroccan Crisis

• Berlin Conference- decided France control mosty of North Africa- Germans not keen on this
• 1905 & 1911- Germans backed Moroccan rebellions against French
• Conflict solved through diplomacy- France retained control of Morocco
• Crisis demonstrated increasing bond between France and Britain and the increasing antagonism between them and Germany (WW1)

Debates over Imperialism

• Growing objection among some Europeans abt wether imperialism was a good thing at all- most Europeans saw nothing wrong
• However, objections gave rise to debate- Joseph Conrad traveled to Belgian Congo- saw brutal degrading/ violent policies place on natives by King Leopold II- Congo diff bc Leopold kept it for himself and not Belgium- Conrad disturbed and wrote novel Heart of Darkness relaying abuses of Congolese (fiction inspired from)
• Edmund Morel- Congo Reform Association- address violence in Congo- gathered notable writers of ages- outlined violent policies in Congo- flooded European conscious with arguments against Leopold's imperial ventures- Leopold forced to transfer imperial rights of Congo to Belgium itself
• Concern over economics of practice as well:
  • J.A Hobson- published paper arguing imperialism was ultimately detrimental bc it relied on unstable markets
  • In Russia Vladimir Lenin- in partial agreement with Hobson- while Hobson thought imperialism was a lapse of Capitalism- Lenin argued that it was the fulfillment of capitalism- therefore he thought Imperialism and Capitalism should be thrown out

Nationalist Resistance to Imperialism

-colonized learned western rules and values- began challenging Imperialism in various ways

- British colonies Hatal and Zululand- British forced Zulus in to work in diamond mines- extremely hard work- dangerous- nationalism took hold of Zulus- gathered army of 40,000, won victories at first but defeated over time

- When Italy claimed Ethiopia- Ethiopian king Menelik II aware that European success in colonization was because of superior weaponry- king purchases industrial weapons from France and Russia- Italians met with stiff resistance- Ethiopia successful in remaining independent state

- British India- Private military established with both British officers and Sepoy (Indian SOldiers (either Hindu or Muslim)- Indian nationalism rose up- Sepoy Mutiny- 1857- spread rapidly across India- upset about westernization of culture- eventually mutiny crushed- consequence of rebellion: possession of colony transferred from British East India Company into hands of British gov.

UNIT 8

Causes of WWI:
1. Militarism- the idea that states desired to increase their military capacity in order to defend and pursue their national interests

2. Alliances

Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

Triple Entente: Britain, Russia, France

3. Imperialism- ex: Scramble for Africa

4. Nationalism-most military leaders of European states believed that war was an acceptable means of vindicating their national honor and keeping their interests safe

Short term and immediate causes:

• Assasination of Austrian ArchDuke Franz Ferdinanrd 1914- he and wife were in a parade in Sarajevo (capital of Bosnia)- Bosnia annexed by Austria-Hungary a few years earlier- nationalism among ppl- Bosnian-Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip killed ArchDuke- Princip lived in Bosnia, was Serbian- Conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary
• Austria- Hungary wanted to weaken Bosnia influence in Balkans- revved up military and decided to intervene- called on ally Germany- Austria- Hungary declares war on Serbia, Russians suffered defeats in previous Balkan crises- rushed to Serbia's aid- Germany declares war on Russia- rest of alliance system comes in- WWI

New Technologies for War

Trench Warfare:

Each side would dig trenches opposite to each other and lay in front w/ barbed wire and set up machine guns in front

WWI TECH

1. Machine-Gun
2. Barbed Wire
3. Chemical Weapons- chlorine gas (blind and choke)- Germans developed submarines- able to attack ships form below surface

• Airplanes used in battle- bombing tequ wouldn't be perfected until 2nd ww

Globalization of War

Total War- all states resources at home and on battlefield were used to fight- rationing food- textile factories turned into munition factories

- Since ppl at home were sacrificing for what seemed to be an unwinnable war w/ devastating casualties, discontent began growing, led to protest and insurrection at home- Easter Rebellion in Ireland- Irish wanted to be free of British rule- Home Rule Movement- prior to outbreak of war, British parliament passed Home RUle Bill which would have granted Ireland independence-put on hold for war- Irish soldiers enlisted to fight w/ British during war- heavy casualties convinced Irish British had no plans to grant independence- Easter Sunday 1916- Irish rebel fought British in streets of Dublin- British subdued them

Reasons called World War

Imperial powers called up colonial soldiers to fight for them

Ex: Indian troops fought for British, North African troops fought for French

Theaters of war spilled beyond borders of Europe

Armenian Genocide:

• Ottoman officials encouraged slaughter of Armenian Christian minorities living within borders

Japan called war on Germany

• Seized German colonial possessions in CHina and South Pacific

End of War

1917- US entered war bc of aggression of German submarines

• US siding w/ Triple Entente led to alliance having upper hand
• Triple Entente won war
• 1818 Treaty of Versailles- altered Global balance of power
  • US became more wealthy and powerful
  • All European empires disbanded- Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires dissolved
  • Germany severely punished- no longer European power- Mandate System- winning powers took control of Germany’s colonial possession- leads squarely to WWII

Russian Revolution

Problems in Russia

1. Political stagnation- rev. 1905

-Tsar Nicholas II- leaned on military and bureaucracy to bolster regime- Nicholas went into field and lead armies personally- led to more discontent

1. Social Inequality- though serfdom was abolished- landed elites still maintained too much power
2. Incomplete Industrialization
3. Food and Land Distribution- most peasants foodless and landless

Russian Rev. March 1917

March Revolution

• Factory workers (many women)- took to streets protesting soaring cost of food
• Tsar Nicholas- was busy commanding troops in feild- commanded troops at home to subdue uprising and told them to go ahead and start shooting if necessary- many troops felt sympathetic to cause and joined into protest
• Russian legislature Duma gathered and took control- Nicholas abdicated throne

Bolsheviks take charge

• Provisional gov. Largely interested in interests of middle class, but increasingly had to contend w/ councils that represented working class interests known as Soviets, who, on the majority, were made up of socialists

Marxist Social Democratic party

• Mencheviks- wanted socialist state-but wanted to install parliamentary democracy in meantime
• Bolsheviks devoted themselves to a violent overthrow not only of tsarist regime, but also Western capitalist values
• Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin- 1917- saw opportunity for Bolsheviks to overthrow provisional government- published April Theses- outlined steps for rev. Based on Marxist reasoning

April Theses

1. Peace, land, and bread

• Russia’s withdrawal from WWI
• Equal redistribution of land to all

1. Worker control of production

• As opposed to elite and bourgeois control

1. All power to the Soviets

Nov. 1917

• Lenin led Bolshevik forces to overthrow provisional gov.
• Bolsheviks- now renamed Communists, in control of Russia- Soviet Union

March 1918

• Lenin negotiated settlement that removed Russia from WWI by giving up a lot of Russian territory in Eastern Europe- goal for Soviet Communism to spread over entire world

Russian Civil War

• Because of the bitterness this new forced arrangement caused among the aristocracy and the anti-Leninists, along with several other now-marginalized groups, Russia degenerated into civil war
• Anti-communist forces aided by several western powers, doesn’t like communist gov in Russia
• Leon Trotsky- Lenin's right hand man- communist army became organized- generated Russian nationalist sentiment against western powers
• Ended 1922- victory to Lenin and communists- Russia turns into Soviet Union

New Economic Policies

• Lenin saw Russia was in bad way economically- Lenin engaged in policies
• In this policy, peasant farmers no longer required to send their produce to the state, but rather could sell them on the open market- Lenin permitted private ownership of small businesses and farms, even while he retained control of larger institutions and businesses
• Lenin wanted to skip steps into getting Communist state- introduced smidge of capitalism to do this

The Treaty of Versailles, Explaines

Tensions at peace table

The Victorious powers did not at all agree on how peace should be administered

US President Woodrow Wilson- played large role in peace settlement

• Idealism
• Wilson wanted to create a perfect world where nations no longer went to war (idealistic)
• Fourteen points
  • The Fourteen points included a provision for the reduction of arms among nations, open diplomatic relationships rather than secretive treaties, and most important of all, the right of self-determination among nations
  • League of Nations- international body devoted to prevention of war- formed but doomed- US didnt even join bc senate voted no bc binding agreement would drag US into war w/o congressional approval- Germany and Russia didn't join either

David Lloyd George (Britain's Prime Minister)- campaigned on a platform to pu ish Germany for war

Georges Clemenceau (France)- wanted to punish Germany bc of destruction in France- uphold national security of France against German aggression- Clemenceau pushed for Germany to be demilitarized and pay reparations for war- create geographic buffer zone in RHineland to prevent Germany from ever attacking again

Strained Relationship w/ Russia

• Distrusted by Western powers

As Result, powers at Peace table bolstered states neighboring Russia like Poland & Czechoslovakia:

• These states, along with other states like Hungary and Yugoslavia became known as democratic successor states because they were newly formed out of the rubble of larger empires

Treaty of Versailles

1. War Guilt Cause- entire blame for war on Germany- humiliation leads to facism and WWII
2. Reparations- Germany pays reparations for war- amount of money ruins Germany Economically
3. Demilitarization
4. Land Cessions

Re-drew map of Europe (esp. Eastern)

• Russian Empire lost significant territory
• Austro-Hungarian Empire disappeared entirely
• Ottoman Empire disappeared

Several new borders drawn for states that emerged from empires drawn by victorious powers w/ no consideration for ethnic minorities who lived in them- borders drawn to split unified ethnic ppl- borders closed around rival ethnic groups

In order to gain support for their cause, Allied powers in war promised several Arab nations ruled by Ottomans that they would recognize their independence

The League of Nations

• Mandate system
  • In order to gain support for their cause, Allied powers in war promised several Arab nations ruled by Ottomans that they would recognize their independence
  • Oil under middle Eastern states
  • France took control of Lebanon and Syria
  • Britain took control of Iraq and Palestine
    

The GLOBAL Economic Crisis Between World Wars

Hyperinflation happening in Germany bc of paying for war reparations

Dawes Plan

- 1. Decreed that Germany pay only the reparations it could afford to pay

- 2. Invested a metric buttload of U.S dollars into German recovery

Led Germany to recover

Kellogg-Briand Pact

• Renounced war as an instrument of foreign policy
• Everything is great.. right??

Cause of Great Depression

1. War debt- WWI created economic burden
2. Nationalistic Tariff policies (many nations put high tariffs in place in order to protect their own domestic industries- cut off flow of free trade in nations-unemployment rose significantly)
3. Over Production (since WWI was total war, many industries ramped up production to meet war demand- but when war ended in 1918, farmers did not decrease their production and thus saturated market w/ goods for which there were no buyers- drove prices down, caused significant economic suffering in farming industry before econ collapse)
4. Speculation (for US 1920’s prosperous- many ppl borrowed money to buy into stock market, practice known as speculation- borrowing money to pay for stocks was good bet bc stock prices were rising

U.S. Stock Market Crash (Oct. 1929)

• Already trouble on horizon in late 20s when American investors began diverting money from European recovery, and esp. German recovery, to invest in U.S. stock market
• U.S lacked money to invest in European recovery- Great depression spread to Europe as well
• By 1932, 25% of the labor force in Great Britain was unable to find work and almost 40% of German workers could find no jobs- women more able to find work???

Responses to Great Depression

John Maynard Keynes (British economist)

• The Keynesian system of economics argued that government spending is the mechanism which will increase consumer demand and thus lift an economy out of depression
• Took hold in US under leadership of Roosevelt- fed gov put Americans to work on gov projects- One new way of thinking about government involvement in econ in order to solve the problem of Great Depression

Cooperative Social Action

• Took place in Scandinavian states
• Socialists in power in Sweden, Norway, and Finland
• Socialist governments created favorable conditions for the development of cooperative enterprises- midway between communism and capitalism- avoid pitfalls of either
• Scandinavian states expanded welfare state- paid for by higher taxes- created social safety nets for citizens

National Government (Great B)

• Alliance between conservative and liberal parties- cooperated on solving problems of Great D

Popular Front (France)

• Leftist parties of France joined together ( mixture of socialists, democracy)- agreed that France could not be taken over by right winged ppl who wanted Facism
• Made gains- did not solve Frances economic crises

Popular Front (Spain)

Facism and Totalitarianism in Europe, explained

The Rise of Fascist States

• Facism
  • A political philosophy that emphasizes obedience to an authoritarian leader, and which leverages all the resources of the state to fulfill the leader’s ambitions

Causes of Facism

-1. Post- World War 1 bitterness

- Because of the immense need for wartijme production, the working class grew in power during the war while middle class power and influence declines bc of suffering in consumer industries

- Women worked while men were off fighting and cherise independence- when men returned women had to go to normal and didn’t like it

-2. Rise of Communism

-3. Economic Instability- ppl felt victimized

Facism in Italy

• Italian gov. Not able to deal w/ Great Depression problems.
• Benito Mussolini-started as left wing-turned into a right winged Fascist, could gain power that way- spoke against Communism, incorporated nationalism- threated to march on Rome w/ Fascist- King of Italy made Mussolini Prime minister- Italian Parliament granted Mussolini dictatorial powers for a year- Mussolini in total control-established totalitarian Fascist state

Totalitarian Tactics

1. Use of modern technology and propaganda to spread his messages to Italians (glorified war- exposed dangers of democracy and communism- demonstrated how fascist was answer to all)
2. Use of secret police which in Italy was known as the blackshirts- violence key to squash opposition to messages and plans- members of Secret police were students and war vets eager to use violence in an unrestricted way- fav ways to keep ppl in line was by giving dissenters horse doses of castor oil- ppl suffered from violent diarrhea for days-lead to death from dehydration sometimes

Italian monarchy and armed forces had some degree of independance

Facism in Germany

• Adolf Hitler
• Sever punishments from treaty of versailles-bc Wiemar gov. Could not address these problems, many German ppl ripe for extremist policies of Adolf Hitler
• Hitler developed deeply rooted racialist ideas in early in life- Antisemitism
• National Socialist German Workers party- Nazi party
• Throughout 20’s Nazis gained more power in Germany- by 30’s Hitler convinced parliament to grant him emergency dictatorial powers
• Hitloer used same tactics as Mussolinin to stayb in power- more effective in use of tactics- used radio in telly to roadcats speeches w/ nationalist messages, antisemetic claims, and promises to restore glory w/ Germany
• Hitler had own propaganda minister named Joseph Goebbels
  • Filmed hitlers powerful speeches and lines of devoted fans
  • Increased appeal

-Shootstaffen (SS)- Hitlers secret police-

- Heinrich Himmler- architect of muder and oppression-organizer of concentration camps- main proponent of ‘purifying’ races of Germany

Facism in Spain and Eastern Europe

• Collapse of parlimentary democracy in spain (fighting for political dominance began)
  • By 1936 a group of leftists called the Popular Front took control and their group represented the interests of workers and communists
  • Spanish army led by General Francisco Franco- opposed new gov- led a violent uprising against Popular Front- installed himself as head of state-forcible seizure of power led directly to Spanish civil war between Franco & pop. front
  • Significant bc represented testing ground for WWII: Franco gained support from Hitler and Mussolini- Franco won and ruled Spain

Western did almost nothing to oppose Facism

• After WWI several new states installed w/ parliamentary democracies- suffered w/ economic problems- democracy new to them- Fascist and authoritarian govs installed in Poland, Hungary, Romania, etc.

Soviet Union

• After Lenin died, Joseph Stalin came to power
• Stalin responsible for sending a million political dissidents to forced labor camps called Gulags- allowed torture to gain false confessiosn out of enemies
• Five Year Plan- rapidly industrialize Soviet Union
  • Great Growth of industrialization
  • Consequences devastating for ppl
    • Millions fo workers flooded into new industrial centers- weren't really provided decent housing- wages decreasing bc Stalin told them they were working for progress of Socialist Utopia promised to them in rev
    • After 1st 5 year plan failed- Stalin criticized- communists called for his removal such as…Lean Trotsky

-Great Purge

- systematic removal of all Stalin's enemies from state- filtered down to Russian citizens as well

- carried out by secret police who tortured and executed ppl who disagreed w/ stalin

• Collectivization
  • Land taken from land-owners and placed under authority of state

Consequences most severe in Ukraine

-Ukranian Kulak deeply despised collectivization-resisted

- Stalin's police took out all means of food production and sealed up borders of Ukraine- six million Ukrainians starved to death- Holodomor (death by hunger)

Causes of WWII

Fascists Rearm and Expand

-Germany rearmed itself and began conquering lots of territory under Hitler

-Appeasement- when Hitler began publicly rearming Germany in 1935 and taking territory thereafter, Britain and France were not too eager to start another war to stop him-”let Hitler do whatever he wants”

- Hitler faced no consequences for breaking provisions weakening Germany in Treaty of Versailles

- growing antagonism and distrust between soviets and western states- The Soviet Union was an authoritarian communist state that was diametrically opposed to the U.S and Western Europe which represented capitalist democracies

Factors Leading to WWII

Territorial Expansions

1935- Italy invaded Ethiopia- an African state never colonized- Italy successful- victory made Brits scared bc threatened control of Swiss Canal in Egypt- only reprisal Mussolini faced was econokmic sancions

Germany’s territorial expansion

• Hitler re-militerized Rhineland- experiment for Hitler- Treaty of Versailles specifically prohibited this- Hitler wanted to see if Britain and France would fight (they didn’t)
• In 1938 Hitler annexed Austria (Anschluss)- on account of all Germans living in Austria- decided to hold vote to hear from Austrians whether they wanted to be a part of Germany- 99% of Austrians voted yes???- that vote was FALSE (rigged)- Hitler successful nonetheless
• Hitler continued to take over Sudetenland/ Czechoslovakia

Munich Agreement

• Brtain and plan agreed to ALL of Hitlers territorial demands so long as he took no more

Nazi Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

• 1. Neither would attack the other for a decade following agreement
• 2. Agreed to split Poland between 2 powers
  • Hitler gained confidence to invade Poland knowing that Soviets would not oppose- this invasion was last straw for britain and france

- Britain and France declare war on Germany

World War II

Two theaters (stages) of war

Pacific Theater

• Driven by policies of aggressive expansionism, Japan (also Facist) had won many victories against China and Russia, then acquired many territories in Southeast Asia
• 1937- Chinese and Japanese forces clashed over Japanese seizure of Manchuria

European Theater

• Triggered by Adolf hitlers invasion of Poland in 1939
• Britain and France declared war on Germany
• Two sides: Allied powers: Britain France, Soviet Union, United States- Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan
• Biltzkrieg (lighting war)- Hitlers method of attack- tactic designed to crush enemy at crazy speed- combo of airpower, tanks, and ground troops- Germany forces plowed through enemy lines & went on to terrorize civilian popu.
• Hitler invaded France w/ same tactics - France fell to Germany- Musollini also wanted a piece
• Northern France under direct occupation of Germany while the south had a Nazi puppet gov. Called Vichy France
• June 1941- Hitler turned sights on Soviets (ignoring pact)
  • Operation Barbarosa- Hitler sought to conquer Soviet Union bc he needed natural resources form land- Soviets rallied and beat them (Germany got a lil territory)

Siege of Stalingrad

• Soviet civilians and Military endured brutal conditions-m would not surrender
• German soldiers had any casualties and couldn't control Soviet stronghold

Axis powers started strong but…

Tides Turn

1940 only real threat to Hitler was Britain

- under Prime Minister Winston Churchill- British rallied to cause

- Hitler assumed bombing campaigns would demoralize Brits that they would beg gov to surrender- had opposite effect- Winston Churchill's speeches were moving and roused Brits to continue resistance

- US supported British:

- after WWI US more isolated, but saw that if British fell to Germans that would be bad for US

- Franklin D. Roosevelt

- US supported Brits in war through Cash and Carry Program, Destroyers for Basis program- etc.

- loyalty abundantly clear to Japan who realized America’s friendship with Britain would eventually bring the industrial giant into the war, thus wanted to prevent this

Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941)

• Japanese planes bombed U.S naval base at Pearl Harbor Hawaii
• US declared war on Japan-Germany declared war on US

The US had incredible industrial capacities- quick;y factories transferred into factories for producing weapons of war (guns, tanks, etc.)

Joint British U.S invasion on D-Day- proved turning point for War in west:

• Decieved Germans that invasion was coming from elsewhere
• June 6, 1944- Brits and US executed largest amphibious invasion in history on beaches on Normandy- liberated frame from Nazi occupation
• Tide turned in Eastern Europe due to all-out effort of Soviet union (Stalingrad)
• Tide turned in Pacific theater in Battle of Midway
  • US dominated Japanese navy- engaged in island hooping campaign to cut off Japanese supply lines

Allies closed in on Berlin more and More

• Hitler committed suicide
• May 7th German gov Surrendered (VE Day)
• European theater closed

New tech in WWII

• More casualties in war than any other war
• Incendiary bombs- bombs cased in woods housing meant to start fires
• Firebombing of Tokyo- 16 square miles of Tokyo burned
• Britain and American planes did same thing to Dresden in Germany
• Atomic bomb
  • Created by US- able to destabilize atoms & release destructive energy that came as result
  • US dropped 2 bombs on Japan to close Pacific theater- one in Hiroshima and one on Nagasaki
  • Several days after Japan surrendered (VJ Day)

The Holocaust, Explained

New Racial Order

• Hitler obsessed w/ Aryan race
• Hitler trained mind to believe that the largest threat to flourishing of the modern master race was the Jewish popu. Of Europe

1935 Hitler’s anti-Jewish policies

• Nuremberg Laws
  • 1. Established that only ppl of pure German blood could be citizens
    • Jews stripped of citizenship
  • 2. Made it illegal for pureblood Germans to intermarry w/ Jews

1939 Hitler’s policy shifted towards Jewish Emigration

• Ship all Jews to island of madagascar (inital plan)- then WWII started so then plans turned much darker

Wannsee Conference (1942)

Nazi leaders Reinhard Heydrich, Heinrich Himmler, and Adolf Hitler articulated what became known as the final solution to the “Jewish problem”- complete extermination of Jews

The Holocaust

• Nazis had already been building death camps for Jews (and other groups)
• Most infamous camps Auschwitz and Dachau
• Gas chambers killed people who did not pass medical exam
• 6 MILLION Jews murdered by Nazis
• Nazis targeted other groups as well, as a result, 4-5 million ppl killed in addition to Jews (Roma, homosexuals, slavs, disabled)’

Cultural, Intellectual, and Artistic Developments, Early 20th cent.

Belief in progress shattered

• Starting w/ scientific rev and into enlightenment, science had solved so many collective problems as humans, and so at turn of cent we were basically on the precipice of utopian civilization- then… WWI
• Scientific advancement and engineering caused massive casualties in WWI

The New Physics

• Early- mid 20th cent., group of new scientists came along and shattered illusions of end to progression
• In his theory of relativity, Albert Einstein discovered that time and space are relative to the observer- faster person moves thru space, slower time would move
• Werner Heisenberg- discovered that the atom was not actually smallest unit of reality- subatomic particles like electrons- Heisenberg discovered that the act of observing electron w/ light, which is how u observe an electron, changes behavior of electron
• Enrico Fermi/Neils Bohr- able to harness power of splitting atoms (led to atomic bomb)

Psychology

• Sifmund Freud- argued that humans are irrational- act on unknown impulses deep in psyche

Society in 20th cent.

Generation of those who came of age in war- lost generation- drift in post war culture (Earnest Hemmingway F. Scot Fitzgerald)

Women experienced change: women served as nurses and office workers- with men off at war- women took up domestic factory jobs- newfound liberty led women to get right to vote

UNIT 9

Rebuilding Europe After WWII

• Soviet Union and US emerged from wreckage of WWII- much of conflict between these 2 powers had to do w/ diff world views- each wanted to make entire world Authoritarian Communist (Soviet)- or Democratic Capitalist (US)
• WWII came to end- democratic states of western Europe in bad times- when places are in economic trouble, they might wanna try communism- under dictates of a communist state, everyone would have enough food and everyone would have gained a gainful employment- US does NOT like this
• US wants to get involved into Western Europe’s economic recovery (Eastern Europe already under soviet control- US proposal to help in economic recovery became known as Marshall plan

Marshall Plan (1947)

• Allocated $13 billion in economic aid to Western nations seeking to rebuild (10 percent of federal budget)
• Fear that if communism began to spread throughout Western Europe, then communism would take over world

Effects of Marshall plan

1. Rapid economic recovery in Western Europe
   1. States quickly rebuilt roads, bridges, cities, etc- now had money for raw material- industrial sector alive again- factories now produced goods needed for reconstruction (extremely successful)

Germany’s Split

• After war Germany split in two halves, East and West
• Western European states & US aiding Western half, Soviet Union aiding Eastern half
• By 1955 Western half of Germany increased economic output so much that it was larger than all of Germany’s output before war

1. Increased importance of consumerism
   1. The idea that wellbeing of nations economy is dependant on ppl buying consumer goods- cars, washing machines-etc.- wages rose bc ppl bought manufactured goods-middle class expanded

Marshall plan worked extremely well

The Cold War Begins

At end of WWII the big 3- Soviet union, Great Britain, US- met in series of 3 conferences…

• One key agreement was that eastern European nations would be allowed to choose their leaders and government through democratic elections
• Another major agreement they made was that League of Nations would not work- another international body should be created - United Nations (made to do what LON couldn’t)- however couldnt keep cold war from happening

After war was over Stalin decided Eastern European nations were not ready for self determination

• Soviet union absorbed nations- Soviet Bloc- nations became communist- economies made to serve Soviet Union instead of selves

After war Germany divided into 4 occupation zones-

Soviets, French, British, and US each claiming one quadrant

• East Germany (soviet dom) became communist state
• Soviets wanted to keep Germany weak so they’d be less of a threat
• By this pt. Was clear that there was significant ideological tension & political tension in Europe, so much that former British prime minister WInston Chruchill said that an iron curtain had descended across the continent

The Containment Policy

• Stalin wanted the whole world communist- so Harry Truman made…
• Truman Doctrine
  • Truman Doctrine said that any country who felt itself under the threat of communism could expect financial and military assistance from the US
  • Ie. Greece

How Cold War was Waged

• Called a cold war bc two nations stood in direct tension with one another, and could go to war at any moment, but ultimately did not (doesn’t mean war wasnt waged:
• 1. Propaganda- Radio Free Europe- broadcasted signals into soviet territories extolling virtues of freedom and democracy- Soviet propaganda emphasized Capitalistic greed of west
• 2. Covert actions- US created CIA for spying- UK had SIC- Soviet had KGB
  • All agencies responsible for sending spies into enemy territory to gather info on weapons build ups and to discover what their next steps were in cold war
• 3. Arms Race (esp. Nuclear weapons)
• After US dropped atomic bomb, Soviets later tested their first atomic bomb in 1949
  • Then Truman developed Hydrogen Bomb (more destructive)
  • Soviets then also developed bomb
  • Unlikely either superpower would ever deploy bombs against each other bc to do so would guarantee mutual assured destruction
• 4. Proxy Wars
  • Major powers support opposing sides of smaller wars- fight eachother w/o actually fighting
  • Korean War: after Japan defeated in WWII- former colony Korea was divided along 38th parallel- Soviets occupied North-US occupied South
    • 1949- both armies withdrew- North Korea became communist while South more democratic
    • 1950 communist North invaded south & US and Soviets got involved w/ money and troops- war ended right where it began with both countries divided
  • Vietnam War
    • Vietnam divided North & South too
    • COmmunist in North, US friendly gov. In South
    • South supported by US, North supported by China and Soviet
    • War cost millions of lives in both sides and ended same as Korean war

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

• Anti- communist attempting to overthrow communist gov.
• Soviet union invaded to support Communists
• US sent weapons to ppl wanting to stop Communism
• Soviets withdrew 1989

Two Superpowers of the Cold War

• Much of what was happening in Western Europe during Cold War- intemately tied to policies of US
• US called the shots…
• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
  • Bc Soviets always threatening to expand west, NATO was a military defense pact- many western European nations signed w/ US- if one state was attacked- everyone was and they would all respond
• World Bank (1944)
  • Provided loans to countries needing to rebuild
  • Goal was to make sure global economic catastrophe like Great depression never happened again
• International Monetary Fund (IMF)
  • Established 1944
  • Facilitated international currency exchange and encouraged global trade
• World Trade Organization
• Established in 1995
• Responsible for generating and enforcing a set of rules that governed international trade
• Reduced tariffs between member nations so trade can flow freely

Soviet/Eastern Economics and Politics
- COMECON (Council for mutual and economic assistance)-- goal to bind soviet stats in mutually reinforcing economic system- make them all dependant on Soviet Union (answer to IMF, World Bank, Marshall plan)

- Answer to NATO- Warsaw Pact- military alliance w/ satellite states and Soviet Union

- In west - US led organizations in notes above- membership in these would make Western Europe dependant on US

Planned Economies in Soviet Bloc

• Economic output of these satellite states were planned by a committee within Soviet Union- each state told what to produce, how much, and where they could sell it
• States in Bloc did not produce for own benefit-rather for overall benefit of Soviet Union, hurt themselves doing this
• Disastrous effects (five year plan)
• Social Welfare- state provided needs for citizens like houses and healthcare-not very good conditions though
• Universal education
• In order to achieve this centralization, Soviet Union systematically removed civil liberties and individual rights of popu.
• Secret police
• Emigration restricted

Construction of Berlin Wall

• Many East Berliners fled to West Berlin (individual liberties and econ. flourished)-Stalin built wall to prevent this

Khrushchev and de-Stalinization

• Stalin died
• Nikita Khrushchev came into power
• De-stalinization- freedom granted to artists- released prisoners- scaled back secret police-created 40 hr workweek and allowed ppl to choose careers
  • Krushcev made clear that more civil liberties would be tolerated and some limited free trade would be implemented
• Economy entered recession 1953-1964-promised econ. Reforms didnt come to fruition
• Ppl revolted

Revolts Against Soviet Policies

• Hungarian Rev. 1956- reform leader Imre Nagy demanded that Hungary has open elections and independence- Naj is himself a communism, but soviets oppressed them
  • Hungary said they would leave Warsaw pact and go under protection of UN- Soviets sent troops to Budapest-n crushed rev.

Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968)

• Reform-minded leader (communist elected)- made reforms outside bounds of soviet policies
• Warsaw pact troops invaded and stopped reforms

Peaceful Rev. 1989

Mikhail Gorbechev- soviet leader- said that soviet Union would not intervene militarily anymore

Hungary now able to enact reforms

By 1991, Gorbachev's policies of glasnost and perestroika- introduced more opensess & limited free market economics into Soviet Union, led to collapse of Soviet Union

Post WWII Nationalism & Ethnic Conflict

Chechen Nationalist movement- began among group of Chechen Muslims who live in Southernmost region Russia- among group there was long resentment against Russians- after collapse of Soviet- Chechens declared independence & lived under gov. For 3 years

1994- Russia brought Chechens back into authority (although independence never acknowledged to begin with)

• Led to series of conflicts where 100,000 Chechens killed; conflict ended in 2017 w/ Russian victory

Ireland- after WWI Ireland split into 2 separate nations

• Central Ireland Catholic (wanted independence)- Northern Ireland Protestant (wanted to stay loyal to Brits)
• Both places had Catholic and Protestant minority- minority not granted many rights
• Civil rights movement among Catholics in Northern Ireland-British crushed rebellion-executed leaders of resistance-more resentment in South and minority in North
• 1972 Northern Ireland under direct British rule
• Good Friday Agreement (1998)- granted more sovereignty to North

Separatist Movements

Basque Separatists Movement

• Struggle on Eastern border of Spain
• Basque-2 million ppl in ethnic group- have anti- Spanish sentiment and fought for a long time for political independence
• ETA (1959)- engaged in assassinations, bombing, kidnapping- to draw attention worldwide & pressure Spanish gov.
• Disbanded 2018

Flemish Separatists Movement

Belgium consists of 2 major groups: Flemish in North, Walloons in South

• Both sides speak diff languages- ost wealth concentrated in south
• Flemish stage movements to become separate nation or to be annexed by Netherland (cultural similarity)

Ethnic Cleansing

• Systematic killing members of unwanted ethnic group
• Bosnia-Hercegovina- part of Yugoslavia-nation whose borders were haphazardly drawn by victorious powers of WWI
• Josip Tito- ruled Yugoslav w/ iron fist
  • Yugoslavia made up of semi autonomous republics under Tito
• When Tito died ethnic groups wanted own nations (Bosnia Herc)
• Slobodan Milosevic- president of Serbia- saw disorder- wanted to consolidate republics under his control
• 1992-Bosnia Herc. declared Independance-serbs minority-Bosnain major
  • To protect Serbian minority, Milsevic sent troops into Bos. Herc.- carried out genocide against Muslim Bosnians-destroyed properties-survivors put in concentration camps
  • 1995- NATO nations intervened- 300,000 Bosnians killed

Post WWII Democracies

• In addition to Marshall plan, many European govs made strong policy decisions that put economic recovery at forefront- didn't want Great Depression to happen again
• The Welfare State:
  • Gov play major role in economy and introduce certain welfare benefits to pop.
  • ‘Welfare state’ had roots in Bismarck's Germany, provided insurance for injury and old age pensions
  • In Britain they established low cost or no cost universities, subsidized healthcare benefits, & unemployment insurance (just to name a few)- implemented by Liberal Labor Party- cradle to grave social welfare state- to do this taxes needed to be higher
  • When two recessions hit, one in 1973-1975, and another in 1979-1983, tax revenue decreased in Britain, & across western Europe, & the high level of government spending was difficult to maintain- ‘stagflation’ - stagnant- economy no longer growing-inflation-prices rising
  • Western govs still spent on welfare by running up budget deficits

The Fall of the Soviet Union

Economic Problems in the Soviet Union

1964- Leonic Brezhnev rose to power in Soviet Union- status quo guy

Late 60’s-70’s- Soviet ppl told that communist utopia was coming- not true

Soviet Economic Troubles

1. Organization of the Soviet economy (planned economy)- gov made decisions abt what jobs ppl had & what they made- required bureaucracy of tens of thousands of ppl to implement- 70-80’s bureaucracy inefficient
2. Malaise of Workers- no incentive to work harder than necessary
3. Crop failures in early 70’s
   1. Thanks to drought in 1972, the Soviet gov was unable to feed its people- turned to US (chief rival)- asked for grain- let them buy 750 million dollars worth of grain on credit to pay back in 3 years- things were SO bad that money was spent in a month

Gorbachev’s Reforms

Mikhail Gorbachav- rose to Power 1982

• Gorbachav was a reformer/ realist and lnew economy wasn’t good, still communist

Reforms:

1. Peretroika
   1. An effort to restructure the Soviet economy by introducing some limited free-market elements ( price control taken away, more private property)- by 1988 econ grew sluggish again
2. Glanost (Openess)
   1. Gorbachev wanted ppl to speak freely about problems facing Soviet Union- more than one candidate able to run for office- political parties other than communist were realized- prisoners released

Chernobyl

• April 1986- reactor exploded and sent massive amount of radiation into environment
• Daily communications about disaster were made

-When Gorbachev invited openness, plenty of these ethnic minorities started protesting the discrimination they had experienced in the long years of nSoviet rule, and in some cases led to violent conflicts- nationalism in Georgia and other places in Soviet Bloc

-Gorbachev broke significantly w. Predecessors & announced that Soviet Union would no longer intervene militarily in those states to prop up communist govs- revolts began immediately after this

Polish Elections 1989

• Labor party Solidarity- led large scale agitations against Soviets trying to oppress freedom
• That year soviets legalized party and allowed free elections
• Solidarity candidates won elections and started dissolving bonds between Soviet and Poland

Fall of Berlin War (1989)

1989- many East Germans had fled to west- Soiet gov flagged- border opened and wall came down

All these factors combined led to fall of Soviet Union 1991

• Ended Cold War, led to establishment of capitalist economies and democratic govs throughout eastern Europe in former Soviet Bloc countries
• Germany re-united, Czechoslovakia split into Czech republic and Slovakia, Yugoslavia broke into different states

Feminism in the 20th century

New Opportunities for Women

1. w/ postwar economic boom came high demand for labor (Marshall plan)
2. Economy of Western Europe shifting away from being primarily dependant on male-dominated industries like coal mining or shipbuilding and more toward a knowledge economy in which people worked primarily w/ brains
3. Many younger Women started going to college in droves after war & that prepared them well for work in the knowledge economy

-Women still faced inequality though- paid less w/ part time work

Second Wave Feminism

• 1st wave occurred in late 19th cent and early 20th cent- protesting for Women’s suffrage

Women's Suffrage:

1918: Sweden, Hungary, Austria, Poland, Germany, Britain, Czechoslovakia

1920: US

1945: France

• While main push in 1st wave was to secure right to vote, second wave focused on societal issues and inequalities women faced including education, marriage laws, and professional careers
• In France Simone De Bouvoir- wrote “ Le Deuxième Sexe”
  • In book she argued societal stardanrds should be abolished- women should have same rights as men
• In east, in Soviet Bloc/ Union, women gained rights not by means of feminist agitation but more directly through gov policy- women recognized as equal as far back as Russian rev.

Marriage and Reproductive Rights

Divorce laws shifted- women had agency in divorce process

Women gained control over amt of children they had or whether they had children at all- birth control pill- effort of feminist Margaret Sanger

• Pushback from Roman Catholic Church- thought that pill said that you were playing God

In Vitro Fertilization

• Egg could be fertilized outside womb & implanted into women’s uterus

Women in Politics

• Margaret Thatcher- Great Britains first female Prime minister 1979
  • Fiercely conservative- goal was to reverse labor party policies that turned Britain into welfare state

- 1990 Mary Robinson- first female president of Ireland\

-Modernized Ireland- worked for legalization of divorce, contreception, homoseculality

-1991 Edith Cresson (Socialist) (1st female Prime minister of France)- tenure plagued w/ accusation of corruption

Decolonization, Explained

Woodrow Wilson- after WWI- big push was encouragement for self determination for states around world

WWII- controlled colonies fought for European powers again but after war was over…

• Major imperial powers no longer had wealth or military power to quell rising demands for independence around world

The Process of Decolonization

Africa: after WWII ppl wanted independece

• France had already recognized independence of 2 colonies- Morocco and Tunisia- France didnt want to grant Algeria independence tho bc millions of French citizens migrated to Algeria and stayed there
• In response: in 1950’s nationalist Muslim group called National Liberation Front began rebelling against colonizers- to protect French and other whites living in Algeria- france sent troops to crush rebellion- 8 yr civil war
• Ended w/ return of Charles de Gaulle (French president 1958)- recognized independence for Algeria
• Egypt technically gained independence 1922 after WWI but British engineered that independence so they were tech still in charge
• Nationalist political party called Wafd began campaigning for full Egyption independence
  • They did not like Egyptian monarch- so 1952 Egyptian army threw coup to take over

Asia

• 1920 Mohandas Gahndi led Indian National Congress in movement for Indian independence from Britain- non violent civil disobedience
• 1947- Threw negotiation- India became independent
• As nations gain independence US and Soviet in cold war- tried to persuade nations to join one side or other
  • India resisted both powers & remained independent of the struggle and thus paved the way for what became known as the Non Aligned Movement- several other newly independent nations followed (more difficult for other places
• Indonesia gained independence from Dutch 1949
  • Soviets made significant inroads
  • Pres. of Indonesia Sukarno- Socialist and gladly accepted support for his policies from Soviets & China
  • Nationalist movement in response: comprised of military and conservative Muslims- overthrew Sukarno 1965- established new gov and aligned w/ west

- Vietnam sought independence from France

-1950’s Viet nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh- organized resistance group called Viet Minh- goal to overthrow French- Viet Minh won battle in 1954- French divided Vietnam into 2 to prepare them for independence and elections in 1956- North dominated w/ communist policies- South more loyal to Western powers- Proxy war

- Vietnam gained independence 1975

The European Union, Explained

The Creation of the EU (European Union)

• Money from Marshall plan has to be spent cooperatively

Steps to European Integration

1. Organization for European Economic cooperation
   1. Organized disbursement and spending of Marshall plan funds
2. European Coal and Steel Community (1951)
   1. Agreement between 6 states (France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg) to integrate steel & coal operations- more unlikely to go to war- nations work together to become singular economic block- good profits
   2. Later 6 states signed treaty 1957- expand relationship to include goods beyond coal and steel
3. Common Market- result & similarly successful
   1. More european nations joined- integration fo state economies into single European economy
   2. Agreement meant that trade restrictions between European states almost nil
4. Maastricht Treaty
   1. Officially created European Union
   2. Signed by 12 countries- had both political and economic effects

Once EU was reality, established 7 bodies that make policy for other EU member nations, including parliament, executive body, & group of ministers wh consider issues like defense and foreign policy

International currency called Euro introduced

Problems w/ EU

National Sovereignty (each state own state w/ own interests) vs. Responsibility to Union ( each state part of union which is stronger economically and politically than they would be alone)

2016- Brexit- Britain exited EU- EU had favorable policies toward immigration-

UK left EU 2020

Migration & Immigration in 20th Century Europe

New jobs opening w/ Economy boom- not enough Europeans to fill jobs

• Beginning in 50’s and 60’s bc of labor shortage, European countries began relying on guest workers to help fill all the jobs (immigrants)
• w/ decolonization- ppl from former colonies moved to former imperial parents countries for work- Europeans states came to others for work too
• By 1980s immigrant constituted about 5% of European population- immigrants brought culture and religion w/ them
• Most prolific growth in religion came from Muslim immigrants practicing Islam in new homes- influx of Muslims led to debates about proper role of religion in public sphere

Resistance to immigrants

• Since Europe historically Christian- rise of growing Islamic minority led to conlfict
• In some countries, Muslims given free access to run for office, others erected significant barriers
• 1970’s economic recession- some groups turned to anti- immigrant rhetoric & policies as explanation for woes- National Front in France- wanted to cut off all immigration & restrict current immigrants from assimilating to French society
• Austria- Freedom Party- anti- immigrant

Controversial Medical Tech in 20th Cent.

New Medical Tech

1. Birth control pill
2. Abortion- not new, but new scientific procedure it could be done (safer)
3. Fertility Treatments- studied causes of infertility- in-vitro
4. Genetic Engineering- alter genetic code of organisms

Objections to New Medicine

• When people live longer, more taxes required for healthcare
• Birth Control, abortion, in-vitro- Roman Catholic church pushed back
• Eugenics- process for weeding out undesirables in society and encouraging multiplication of the desirables

Globalization, Explained

Globalization: definition & history

• Globalization describes increasing economic, political, & social interconnectedness of world

Causes of Globalization

1. Multinational Corporations
   1. Entity which is incorporated in one country but manufactures and sells goods in others- ex: Nestle :(
2. International Governing Bodies
   1. EU or UN enact policies for global community
3. Communication & Transportation tech

Global Communications and Transportation

• Telephone- connected ppl in distant locations- made migration & immigration more palatable
• 1930s- radio- 1950’s-television
• Late 90’s & early 2000’s rise on internet & computers- commerce increase
• Objectors: much of EUrope’s entertainment being imported from US- problem is that entertainment written according to US values and culture
• Starting in 1930’s- ppl adopted automobile more and more- roads now primary way to get anywhere

Resistance to Globalization

• Green Parties aimed to challenge effects of increasing consumerism & corresponding environmental degradation- (RHine river poluted- oil spills etc.)
• Green party wanted to fix these environmental problems
• German Green party saw success
• Green parties continue

Cultural, Artistic, & Demographic trends in Modern Europe

New Philosophy

• Scientific progress could be destructive

Existentialism

• Philosophy that assumed world was absurd and thus meaning had to be found in spite of that absurdity- Freidrich Nietzsche (God dead, world meaningless)

Postmodernism

• All truth is relative
• Not one culture or thinker known absolute truth bc all claims are culturally conditioned

Organized Religion

• Continued to play significant role in social & cultural life- in spite of challenges faced
• 20th century church had to contend w/ totalitarian gov
• Germany- Dietrich Bonhoeffer found Confessing Church- vocal on criticism abt Nazi policies- Bonhoeffer executed
• In Italy, Mussolini understood he needed support of Catholic church & recognized independance of vatican city & proclaimed Catholicism as official relgiojn of Italians- Pope encouraged Italy to support facist gov
• Poland- church had to compete w/ soviet communist oppression- 1980 Solidarity- Cardinal- 1978 Catholic polish Pope John Paul II- sympathetic w/ Solidarity goal and supported them
• Second Vatican Council (Vatican II) (1962-1965)
  • Purpose was to update church to respond to modern world:
    • Priest could say mass in vernacular languages rather than latin
    • Resolutions to live on friendlier terms w/ other sects of Christianity (Protestants, Orthodox)
    • Revival of Catholcism

A Revolution in the Arts

Futurism- Italy and Russia- artists emphasized future of 2 states in order to free them of checkered paths- ie. Natalia Gonkorova

Dadaism- Response to felt purposelessness of life after two world wars had devastated Europe- Marcel Duchamp ( literally just urinal)

Surrealism- Sigmund Freud exposed chaotic and unrefined interior worlds of human beings, asrt ought to reflect those realities

• Salvador Dali- The persistence of memory

Bauhaus School of architecture

• Design structures based on function - more minimalist

Literature

Irish novalist James Joyce made composition called Stream of COnsciousness- put on a opage characters actual thoughts (rapid w/o punctuation)- ie; Ulysses

Franz Kafka- challenged old ways by combining elegant writing w/ fantastical imagination- ie. Metamorphises

Mass Production of goods and babies

Consumerism/ Baby boom:

• Disposable income of average European significantly increased during this time
• More comfortable life
• Population explosion- neonationalist policies encouraged ppl to have babies- more in Western states

Civil Rights Movements

• Women’s rights (notes above)
• Gay and Lesbian civil rights
  • Prior to movements, homosexuality outlawed in almost all European states
  • Homosexual Front for revolutionary action- France (1971)
    • Begna movement by interrupting radio broadcast in which catholic priest was arguing against acceptance of homosexuality- broke in and shouted into mics that policies against gays should be overturned
    • This & other movements across Europe fought for equality for LGBTQ people in 20th and 21st centuries- some places, like France, won many victories, not so much in Eastern Europe esp
• Revolts of 1968
  • Counterculture- railed against consumerism-inequalitybetween rich and poor
  • Students led protests against inequality- war in Vietnam-p abuses of capitalism, and oppressive govs
  • France May 1968
    • Group of students influenced by new left ideologies protested conservatism in uni’s- property destroyed- many students injures
    • Days later general strike of 10 million workers joined protest and French gov ultimately made reforms