pancreas , liver , and gallbladder

Bile Storage: Bile is stored in the gallbladder and concentrated there.
Hormonal Trigger: The presence of food in the digestive system triggers hormone release, causing the gallbladder to squeeze bile.
Transport: Bile travels through the cystic duct, into the common bile duct, and into the duodenum.
Role in Digestion: Bile assists in emulsifying fats, allowing enzymes to begin fat breakdown.

Endocrine Role: The pancreas regulates blood sugar by secreting insulin.
Exocrine Role: Functions as a critical exocrine gland in digestion, producing enzymes and sodium bicarbonate.
Enzyme Production: Pancreatic enzymes act on macromolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Sodium Bicarbonate Function: Neutralizes acidic gastric juice in the duodenum, activating pancreatic enzymes and allowing them to function in a less acidic environment.

Location: Retroperitoneal organ, about six inches long.
Parts of the Pancreas: Composed of the head (thicker part), body, and tail.
Pancreatic Duct: Main duct through which pancreatic juice is excreted into the duodenum.
- Accessory Duct: A secondary opening that branches off the main pancreatic duct.
- Hepatopancreatic Ampulla: Where the common bile duct and pancreatic duct join before entering the duodenum.
- Sphincter of Oddi: Controls the opening/closing of the ampulla, regulating bile and pancreatic juice flow into the duodenum.

Enzyme Categories: Enzymes produced include proteases, amylases, and lipases.
Proteolytic Enzymes: Proteins are broken down by trypsin and chymotrypsin.
- Trypsin Activation: Released as trypsinogen (inactive) and converted to trypsin in the duodenum using entero kinase.
Lipase Function: Breaks down lipids, impactful for fat digestion.

Cystic Fibrosis: Affects ducts in the pancreas, hindering enzyme secretion, leading to digestive difficulties.
Inflammation: Conditions like chronic pancreatitis increase the risk of pancreatic cancer and can cause gastrointestinal pain or dysfunction.
Cancer Statistics: Pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer deaths in the U.S., often detected late and more prevalent in males.

Liver Size and Location: Second largest organ, located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, weighing about three pounds.
Liver Lobes: Composed of a right lobe (larger) and a left lobe, connected to abdominal structures via ligaments like the falciform ligament and ligamentum teres.

Bile Production: Hepatocytes produce bile, which helps emulsify fats in the digestive process.
Metabolism: Maintains blood glucose levels, stores and synthesizes glycogen, and manages triglycerides and cholesterol.
Nitrogenous Waste Management: Converts ammonia (a byproduct of protein breakdown) into urea for safe excretion.
Vitamins and Mineral Storage: Stores vitamins and minerals, including iron, which can accumulate in genetic disorders.
Detoxification: Processes drugs and alcohol.
Activation of Vitamin D: Converts precursors into active vitamin D, playing a role in calcium metabolism.

Bilirubin: Byproduct of red blood cell breakdown processed by the liver.
- Jaundice: Yellowing of the skin and eyes due to bilirubin buildup; often seen in newborns.
Treatment for Jaundice: Using blue light therapy helps convert bilirubin to a more manageable form for excretion.

Function: Primarily a storage site for bile, releasing it as needed into the digestive tract.
Gallstone Development: Caused by excess cholesterol and can result in cystic duct blockages, leading to pain and inflammation.
Risk Factors for Gallstones: Female gender, high fat diet, being over 40, and overweight.
Treatment Options: Surgery or lithotripsy (using sound waves). Lifestyle adjustments can also help manage gallstone risks.