bio battle sheet

Darwin made the theory of evolution when he travelled the world, suggested the earth was >100,000 y.o and all species were the same from the beginning
Genetic diversity = diff. species, Species diversity = variety in an area, Ecosystem diversity= diff. ecosystems
Dude, Keep Penis Clean Or Fungus Growth Starts. Domain, Kingdom, Phyllum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. Five domains are Bacteria, Protista, Eukaryota(animalia, plantae, fungi), Archaea
Dichotomous Keys: keep dividing by half using their most common/basic characteristics
Viruses: cause diseases, JUST have DNA/RNA and a protein coat and need a host to reproduce (they dont live), lytic cycles make copies of it & lysogenic cycles make them dormant in bacteria and can start lytic (need dna injections)
Bacteria: Prokaryotes, archaea=extremophiles, eubacteria=common bacteria, Separate when dna strands become one then two rings and then telophase, Come in 3 shapes: spheres, rods, and spirals
HELPFUL bacteria: probiotics for digestion/food production, bioremediation, gene therapy, nitrogen fixation. HARMFUL bacteria: animal n plant diseases, food spoilage. Can be combated naturally i.e through skin, mucus or chemically i.e antibiotics, disinfectants
Protista: dont fit into other categories, eukaryotes, have traits from all kingdoms but dont resemble bacteria
Fungi reproduce sex- and asex-ually w spores, come in Zygomycota (case-like) bread mould, Ascomycota (sac-like) yeast, or Basidiomycota (club-like) mushrooms, Chytridomycota (flagellated spores)
Plants: Non vascular-flavoured lacks roots shoots and stems while vascular do. Angiosperms r flowered covered seeds vs gymnosperms r exposed seeds. Ferns r nonseeded vasculars
Vertebrates r 5% of all animals, store carbs as glycogen, usually radial or bilateral symmetry, 35 animalia phylums, cell membrane not wall
6 threats to biodiversity: global warming, habitat loss, pollution, overexploitation, invasive species, exotic pet trade

Mitosis: they do this to grow/repair/reproduce, most of its life is spent in interphase (G1, S, G2), PMAT, cytokinesis. Spindle fibers pull it apart, nuclear envelope goes at P
Meiosis: chromosomes duplicate in interphase. Meiosis 1: chromosomes mix n match and halve (2n). Meiosis 2: chromosomes separate into chromatids(n) making a gamete. Mix n match happens at P
Mitosis vs meiosis: 2 crosses over, 1 divides once, 1 makes 2 2n cells vs 2 makes 4 n cells, 1 makes copies while 2 has a unique combination, 2 ii is like 1
Meiosis mistakes/nondisjunction (deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation) happen in A i or ii. Trisomy (when a gamete has an xtra chromosome) 21: down syndrome, 18: edward’s, 13: Patau, XXY: klinefelters syndrome. Monosomy (lack of chromosome) X: turners syndrome infertility, Amniocentesis performed to get chromosome karyotype
Dominant alleles and recessive alleles exist. Law of segregation: members of a pair of alleles for a given trait r separated when gametes r formed thru meiosis
Finding parent alleles from offspring ratio: find lowest ratio, /100, use logic to figure out who has what D/r
Dihybrid crosses are just AaBb punnett squares
Incomplete dominance: both genotypes blend, e.g. red and white flowers make a pink flower Co-dominance: both genotypes show separately e.g. red and white cows make spotted calves, write blood groups as I^Ai, I^AI^B
Chromosomal inheritance theory: Chs carry genes, aka heredity units; Ch sets separate in meiosis. Gametes have ½ cells compared to somatic cells. Chs independently assort in meiosis. Females have 2 X chromosomes and males have XY. Genes on the same chromosome get inherited together. Gene linkage happens on the same chromosome, NOT following Mendel's law which applies to diff Chs
X Chs carry traits that can only show up in males bc they dont have another X to depend on, males get them from their mother and will always show up while females get them from dad n js carry them
How 2 read pedigrees: they just track a trait, if it shows up w two diff its dominant and if both parents need the trait for it to show up then its recessive. If a PEDIGREE is D/r then the TRAIT is D/r. the chart js tracks it. Use punnetts to figure shit out.
Genetic engineering: enzymes cut out a desired gene extracted from a cell and put it in a DNA vector from bacterium. The bacteria reproduce w this characteristic.

11 human organ systems: integumentary, reproductive, digestive, respiratory, urinary, endocrine, lymphatic, circulatory, muscular, nervous, skeletal. Chemical elements -> cells -> tissue -> organs -> body systems -> the human body
Vitamins/minerals-immunity; lipids-long-term energy; water-transports nutrients+waste; proteins-structural functions; nucleic acids-directs growth n development; carbs-short-term energy
Digestive tract=6.5-9m long, digestion is ingestion(oral cavity n saliva)->(travels thru esophagus)->digestion->(HCl kills bacteria and pepsin catalyzes it)->absorption->(small intestine for 12 hours for chemical absorption then large intestine)->egestion.
Salivary gland: releases amylase in saliva Liver: synthesizes bile, filters blood Gallbladder: stores and releases concentrated bile to digest lipids when needed Pancreas: makes digestive enzymes and insulin
Respiration: nasal cavity -> pharynx -> larynx -> trachea ->bronchi -> bronchioles -> alveoli. O2 enters bloodstream and CO2 leaves, chems move from high to low concentration. O2 rich blood goes through the heart and CO2 rich blood has exited the heart. INHALATION: diaphragm flattens n moves downwards, intercostal muscles contract, pressure decreases space increases. EXHALATION: diaphragm relaxes and domes up, intercostals relax, pressure increases, ribcage falls
Respiratory disorders: asthma (inflamed bronchial tube), tuberculosis (bacterial), lung cancer, cystic fibrosis. Respiratory limits: drowning, CO poisoning, smoking
Circulatory system: heart, blood vessels, 4-5L blood. blue=vein, deoxy. Body -> (vena cava) -> right atrium -> right ventricle -> (pulmonary artery) -> lungs -> (pulmonary vein) -> left atrium -> left ventricle -> (aorta) -> body. Blood ingredients: 40-45% blood cells to carry o2/remove co2, 55% plasma to transport nutrients, <1% platelets for clotting, <1% white blood cells for immunity. Transports: o2+nutrients 2 tissues, hormones 4 regulation, antibodies 4 infections, clot wounds, respiration waste to remove
BP systolic(pressure when it beats while pumping)/diastolic(between beats at rest) in mm/Hg, sphygmomanometer. normal:<120/<80, pre-hypertension 120-139/80-89, HBP1 140-159/90-99, HBP 160+/100+, BP depends on cardiac output+arteriolar resistance. HP=increased blood flow resistance, tachycardia= rapid heartbeat. stress=cor. arterioles dilate, BP causes: high chol., smoking, diabetes, rapid weight loss/gain, lack of reg. Exercise, genes

Plant benefits: food, pharmaceuticals, fuel, industry, recreational use, environmental
Anthropogenic disturbances: invasive species, air pollution, habitat fragmentation, development. Natty: drought, fire, tornado, blizzard. Then plant communities change over time aka eco. Succession. 1. Primary succession starts in places lacking soil, pioneer plants r lichens and mosses creating microclimates. SECONDARY succession leaves soil intact, could be natty (forest fire/flood) or anthropogenic (urbanization/farmland)
Makes seeds: flowers are angiosperms and non-flowering are gymnosperms. Doesnt make seeds: ferns if vascular, moss if some roots/structure, algae if no roots or structure. Angio- sexually reproduce and gymno- asexually. Monocotyledons have spread out vascular bundles, parallel leaf veins, three floral parts. Dicots: ring vascular bundles, netlike leaf veins, ⅘ florals
Vascular tissues: xylem for water n minerals and give structure; phloem for sugars from leaves aka translocation, n hormones; ground tissue is between dermal and vascular tissue, stores glucose, lets photosynthesis happen; dermal tissue is the skin, protects, has a waxy coating and grows sharp hairs; meristematic contributes 2 growth;
Roots: anchorage, W&M absorption, food n water transp., reproduction. Shoots: photosynthesis, transp. F&W, reproduction, storage
Angiosperms: cuticle/waxy leaves, vascular. Most flowers r hemaphroditic/contain both sexes. Male: stamen consists of a filament stick and anther ball contains pollen Female: pistil consists of stamen (top stickyentrance), style (neck) and ovary (bottom containing the eggs). Monocots: corn, grass, tulips, orchids, bananas. Dicots: maple, oak, roses, cotton, apples, tomatoes, dandelions
Seeds contain an embryo, food supply, seed coat, seeds spread by wind/animals/bursting/water/humans
Primary/1st year growth: lateral, secondary is in diameter once they live that long. Factors affecting growth: (external) light intensity, type, duration, macronutrients, micronutrients, temp, pH, stability, (internal) hormones, transport, gas exchange. Hormones: Auxins, cytokinin, gibberellins regulate growth. Abscisic acid regulates plant dormancy. Ethene regulates fruit ripening. Tropism: positive if its toward the stimulus or negative if away.
Plants need N(leaf growth), P(plant development), K(waterbalance), Ca(cell wall formation), Mg(chlorophyll synthesis), S(protein synth.)
Plant fields: arboriculture (pro tree climber and cultivator), silviculture: managing plantations, horticulture: cultivating smaller plants and flowers, hydroponics: growing without soil, turf management: maintaining lawns

Darwin observed three things: global variations, local variations, species vary over time. Analysis is Origin of Species.
All species descend from common ancestral species and change bc of natty selection. analogous=same function, diff ancestor; vestigial=leftover unneeded traits from an ancestor that needed it; homologous=same ancestor, similar anatomy
microevol.=smallest scale. If natural selection is against both extremes, more of the population is toward the mean and vice versa. Bottleneck effect reduces gene pool, caused by disasters greatly reducing a population. Founder effect=when a few people colonize a place, so the coming generations will have their genetic makeup.
speciation=a new species forming that cannot successfully breed with its ancestor/macroevolution. Causes: geo. Isolation, habitat isolation, gene flow reduction, etc. can happen gradually (long time slowly) or punctuated (in one generation in a long time)
Evolution patterns: divergent evolution- species splitting into a branch as they adapt/convergent evolution-diff species evolving similar traits/parallel evolution-convergent but independently/coevolution-evolving in response 2 eachother/adaptive radiation-rapid new species from an ancestor
Stromatolites are layers of bacteria fossils. RNA came before every other life component. Five kingdom system: plantae, fungi, animalia, protista, monera. Macroevolution is major biological changes shown in the fossil record, incl. Speciation, extinction, evolution
Specie relatedness can be measured by # of homologous traits, gene comparing, proteins, etc. A branch=clade. Cladogram is the diagonal line with opposing diagonals coming out being specified into traits. Starts with a common ancestor and slowly gets more traits till it reaches a certain developed modern species.
Primate ancestor diverged into a. Prosimians and b. Anthropoids. b divided into ba. Hominids, humans and their near ancestors.