Morphology

• Is the study of word formation, (ordbildning).

• it is the study of morphemes and the way they are arranged/ structured and formed in a word.

• Is the study of the internal structure of words.

Morpheme

• Is the smallest part of a word that has grammatical function or meaning (Är den minsta delen av ett ord som har grammatisk funktion eller betydelse).

• Morphemes are classified in different ways one classification is classifying all morphemes into either free or bound.

• A morpheme consists of one or more phonemes

[For example, sawed, sawn, sawing, and saws can all be analyzed into the morphemes {saw - ed}, {saw -n}, {saw-ing}, and {saw-s}.

Allomorphs

Allomorphs are different phonological or morphological realizations of a morpheme. In other words, they are variations of a morpheme that occur in different linguistic environments. For example, the plural morpheme in English can be realized as /s/ (e.g., cats), /z/ (e.g., dogs), or /ɪz/ (e.g., horses), depending on the phonological context.

Free morpheme

• A free morpheme can stand alone and be used as an independent word in the language.

• Example: Desire, shoe, screen, free, king, seven, trap, establish, kiss, strong, follow, awe, good, talk, tech, act

Bound morpheme

• A bound morpheme can not stand alone or be used as an independent word in the language.

• Example: ness(happiness), ly (happily) pre (prejudge), s(arms, books, homes), Able (disabled)

Structure

• Every word has a base and one or mor affixes or no affixes.

Affixed

• Attached to some other unit.

• Affixes are bound morphemes they cannot form words by themselves which is why they need to sit on a stem or a root.

• Affix covers both suffix and prefix and a bunch of other affixes.

• Affixes are either derivational or inflectional.

• Affixes may change the grammatical category of the root/stem they attach to

[ adj 🡪 adv]

Prefix

• Prefixes are attached before the word.

• All prefixes in English are derivational.

• Example: Im – probable

Suffix

• suffixes are attached after the word.

• suffixes may be derivational or inflectional.

• Example: Learn – er

Root

• The basic core of the word

Example:

Stem or base

• A root when something is added to it

Example:

Inflectional Morpheme (BÖJNINGSMORFEM)

• English has only 8 inflectional morphemes

• An inflectional morpheme is a type of bound morpheme that is added to a word to indicate grammatical information, such as tense (tid), number, case (konjugation), or comparison.

• Inflectional morphemes do not change the basic meaning or part of speech of a word, but rather modify it to indicate its grammatical function in a sentence. For example, the "-s" added to the end of "dog" to make it plural ("dogs") is an inflectional morpheme indicating number while the "-ed" added to the end of "walk" to make it past tense ("walked")

1. Third person singular (3psg) present {-s} (Presens /nutid)) example: wait-s VERB

(The third person singular (3psg) present is a grammatical form used to indicate an action performed by a singular subject in the present tense. Verbs in the third person singular present tense typically end in "-s" when used with singular subjects, such as "he runs," "she sings," or "it jumps".)

1. Past tense {-ed} (Preteritum/ dåtid) example: wait-ed VERB

(The past tense is a grammatical form used to indicate that an action or event took place in the past (förflutna), The past tense of regular verbs is typically formed by adding "-ed" to the base form of the verb, such as "walked," "talked," or "played". However, irregular verbs (oregelbundna verb) have unique past tense forms that do not follow this pattern, such as "went," "ate," or "slept”)

1. Past participle example: wait-ed VERB

(The past participle is a grammatical form used to indicate that an action or event was completed in the past ( förflutna) and has continuing relevance or effect in the present (har fortsatt relevans och effect I nuet). The past participle of regular verbs (particip av reguljära verb) is typically formed by adding "-ed" to the base form of the verb, such as "walked," "talked," or "played”. However, irregular verbs have unique past participle forms that do not follow this pattern, such as "gone," "eaten," or "slept”. It is also used in passive voice constructions, such as "The cake was eaten," where "eaten" is the past participle of "eat".)

1. Present participle {-ing} ( Presens particip) ( example: wait-ing VERB

(The present participle is a grammatical form used to indicate that an action or event is ongoing or in progress at the present time. The present participle of regular verbs is typically formed by adding "-ing" to the base form of the verb, such as "walking," "talking," or "playing". However, irregular verbs have unique present participle forms that do not follow this pattern, such as "going," "eating," or "sleeping”.)

1. Plural {-s} example: girl-s NOUN (Substantiv)

The plural inflection {-s} is used to indicate that a noun represents more than one person, animal, place, thing, or idea. The regular plural form of nouns is typically formed by adding "-s" to the singular form “girl”, such as "girls”.

1. Possessive/Genetive {-'s} (Genetiv) example: girl-'s NOUN (Substantiv)

(The genitive/ Possessive case is a grammatical case that indicates possession, ownership, or a close relationship between two nouns. The genitive/Possessive case is typically formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter "s" ('s) to the noun, such as "the dog's tail" or "Sarah's book")

• The teacher´s teeth (the teeth of the teacher) (Lärarens tänder, Singular)

• The teachers´ teeth (the teeth of the teachers, many teachers) (lärarnas tänder, Plural)

1. Comparative {-er} (Komparation av adjektiv) example: quick-er ADJECTIV

(The comparative form is a grammatical form used to indicate a higher degree of a particular quality when comparing two things. The comparative form of adjectives and adverbs is typically formed by adding the suffix "-er" to the base form for short adjectives and adverbs, such as "faster”. For longer adjectives and adverbs, the comparative form is often created by using the word "more" before the base form, such as "more beautiful”.)

• Smaller

• Your right ear is smaller than your left ear

1. Superlative {-est} example: quick-est ADJECTIV

(The superlative form is a grammatical form used to indicate the highest degree of a particular quality when comparing three or more things. In English, the superlative form of adjectives and adverbs is typically formed by adding the suffix "-est" to the base form for short adjectives and adverbs, such as "fastest”. For longer adjectives and adverbs, the superlative form is often created by using the word "most" before the base form, such as "most beautiful.)

Derivation

• Derivational morphemes can change the meaning or part of speech of a word.

• Derivational morphemes create new words, but it necessarily changes the class (Ord Klassen).

• Derivational morphemes are added to forms to create separate words: {-er} is a derivational suffix whose addition turns a verb into a noun, usually meaning the person or thing that performs the action denoted (betecknas) by the verb.

Derivation/ inflectional

• 1. Shoot (v) 🡪 shooter (n) Derivational class changing

• 2. Shooter (n) + -s 🡪shooters (n) inflectional class maintaining.

• The rule is that inflectional affixes attach after derivational affixes.

• Ex. Happy- unhappyily

1. Happy (adj) 🡪 unhappy (adj) derivational, class maintaining

2. Unhappy (adj) + ly 🡪 unhappily (adv) derivational, class changing.

Word Formation

1. Compound: Compounding is a word formation process in which two or more words are combined to create a new word with a new meaning. The new word is called a compound word, and it can be formed by combining two or more free morphemes, or a combination of free and bound morphemes.

Examples of compound words in English include:

- Toothbrush (tooth + brush)

- Blackboard (black + board)

- Firefighter (fire + fighter)

- Bookstore (book + store)

- Headache (head + ache)

1. Conversion: also known as zero derivation, is a word formation process in which a word changes its grammatical category without the addition of any affixes. This process involves using a word in a new context or function, such as using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun. Conversion is a productive process in English and can be used to create new words and expand the vocabulary of the language.

Examples of words that undergo conversion in English include:

- Email (noun) -> to email (verb)

- Bottle (noun) -> to bottle (verb)

- Run (verb) -> a run (noun)

- Fish (noun) -> to fish (verb)

1. Clipping/ Abbreviation: Clipping/Abbreviation is a word formation process in which a word is shortened by removing one or more syllables to create a new word. The new word retains the meaning of the original word but is often used informally or in specific contexts. Clipped words are typically informal and may become part of everyday language over time. Clipped words are often used in casual speech, slang, and informal writing. They can also become part of specialized jargon or technical language. The process of clipping allows for the creation of concise and easily pronounceable words, and it reflects the dynamic nature of language as it evolves to meet the needs of its speakers. 

Examples of clipped words in English include:

- Ad (from advertisement)

- Phone (from telephone)

- Vet (from veterinarian)

- Gym (from gymnasium)

- Exam (from examination)

1. Acronym: An acronym is a word formed from the initial letters of a phrase or a series of words, with the letters pronounced together as a single word. Acronyms are often used to create shorter, more memorable terms for complex or lengthy expressions. Unlike abbreviations, which are typically pronounced as a series of individual letters, acronyms are pronounced as complete words. Acronyms are commonly used in various fields, including science, technology, government, and everyday language. 

Examples of acronyms in English include:

- NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

- UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)

- RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)

- LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

- AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

1. Blend: A blend is a word formation process in which two or more words are combined to create a new word that combines the meanings of the original words. Blends are created by taking parts of two or more words and combining them to form a new word with a new meaning. The new word may be a combination of the sounds or letters of the original words, or it may be a combination of the meanings of the original words. Blends are often used in informal language, such as in slang or in advertising. They can also be used to create new words that reflect changes in technology, culture, or society.

Examples of blends in English include:

- Brunch (breakfast + lunch)

- Smog (smoke + fog)

- Spork (spoon + fork)

- Chortle (chuckle + snort)

- Ginormous (gigantic + enormous)

1. Borrowing: Borrowing, in the context of linguistics, refers to the process by which a word from one language is adopted and incorporated into another language. When a word is borrowed, it is typically adapted to fit the phonological, morphological, and syntactic patterns of the borrowing language. Borrowed words often undergo changes in pronunciation, spelling, and usage to align with the conventions of the receiving language. Borrowing occurs when languages come into contact with each other, often through cultural exchange, trade, colonization, or migration. As a result, languages can acquire vocabulary from other languages, enriching their lexicons and reflecting the interconnectedness of human societies.

Examples of borrowed words in English include:

- "Taco" and "burrito" from Spanish

- "Kindergarten" from German

- "Piano" and "cappuccino" from Italian

- "Chocolate" from Nahuatl (an indigenous language of Mexico)

- "Guru" from Sanskrit

What are the different types of morphemes and how do they contribute to word formation?

• Morphemes can be classified into different types based on their functions and characteristics. In the context of word formation, morphemes play a crucial role in creating and understanding words. Here are the different types of morphemes and their contributions to word formation

1. Free Morphemes:

• Definition: Free morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone as words and carry meaning independently.

• Contribution to word formation: Free morphemes can form the basis of words without requiring additional morphemes. For example, in the word "teacher," the morpheme "teach" is a free morpheme that can stand alone as a word.

1. Bound Morphemes:

• Definition: Bound morphemes are morphemes that cannot stand alone as words and must be attached to other morphemes.

• Contribution to word formation: Bound morphemes are attached to free morphemes or other bound morphemes to create new words or alter the meaning or function of existing words. For example, the suffix "-er" in "teacher" is a bound morpheme that changes the word from "teach" to "teacher," indicating the person who performs the action of teaching.

1. Inflectional Morphemes:

• Definition: Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes that indicate grammatical relationships such as tense, number, possession, comparison, and so on.

• Contribution to word formation: Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical function of words without changing their fundamental meanings. For example, the suffix "-s" in "dogs" indicates plural form, and the suffix "-ed" in "walked" indicates past tense.

1. Derivational Morphemes:

• Definition: Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes that create new words or change the grammatical category or meaning of words.

• Contribution to word formation: Derivational morphemes are used to form new words by adding prefixes or suffixes to existing words. They can change the part of speech or the meaning of the base word. For example, the prefix "un-" in "unhappy" changes the meaning of "happy," and the suffix "-ness" in "happiness" changes the word to a noun form.

What are some common usage issues related to word forms in different communities of English speakers

• Common usage issues related to word forms in different communities of English speakers can arise due to variations in dialects, regional differences, and evolving language norms. Some of these issues include:

1. Spelling and Pronunciation Variations:

Different communities may have variations in spelling and pronunciation of words, leading to differences in word forms. For example, the pronunciation of certain words may vary between British English and American English, such as "schedule" (pronounced as "shed-yool" in British English and "sked-yool" in American English).

1. Vocabulary Differences:

Different communities may use different words or expressions to convey the same meaning. For instance, certain terms or phrases commonly used in one English-speaking region may not be as prevalent or may have different equivalents in another region. This can lead to variations in word forms and expressions.

1. Slang and Colloquialisms:

Communities often develop their own slang and colloquial expressions, leading to variations in word forms and usage. For example, the use of slang terms and informal language can differ significantly between different English-speaking communities, impacting word forms and meanings.

1. Morphological Variations:

Some communities may use different morphological forms of words, such as irregular verb forms, plural forms, or derivational affixes. These variations can lead to differences in word forms and grammatical structures.

1. Semantic Shifts:

Different communities may experience semantic shifts in word meanings over time, leading to variations in word usage and forms. For example, a word that has a specific meaning in one community may have a broader or narrower meaning in another community.

How does English inflectional morphology differ from derivational morphology

English inflectional morphology and derivational morphology are two fundamental aspects of word formation in the English language, and they differ in their functions and effects on words. Here's a comparison of the two:

Inflectional Morphology:

1. Function: Inflectional morphology involves the addition of inflectional morphemes to words to indicate grammatical properties such as tense, number, possession, comparison, and degree.

2. Grammatical Function: Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical function of words without changing their fundamental meanings. They do not create new words or change the lexical category of the base word.

3. Examples: In English, inflectional morphemes include suffixes such as "-s" for plural nouns (e.g., "cats"), "-ed" for past tense verbs (e.g., "walked"), and "-est" for superlative adjectives (e.g., "tallest").

4. Productivity: Inflectional morphemes are highly productive and can be added to a wide range of words to indicate grammatical relationships.

Derivational Morphology:

1. Function: Derivational morphology involves the addition of derivational morphemes to words to create new words, change the grammatical category of words, or alter their meanings.

2. Word Formation: Derivational morphemes create new words by adding prefixes or suffixes to existing words. They can change the part of speech or the meaning of the base word.

3. Examples: In English, derivational morphemes include prefixes such as "un-" (e.g., "unhappy"), and suffixes such as "-ness" (e.g., "happiness") and "-able" (e.g., "comfortable").

4. Productivity: Derivational morphemes are productive but to a lesser extent than inflectional morphemes. They are used to create new words and expand the vocabulary of the language.