Reconstruction

Reconstruction, 1867–1877: Freedom, Power, and the Limits of Reform

Learning Objectives

  • Explain how formerly enslaved people defined and pursued freedom after the Civil War.

  • Describe the origins and goals of Radical Reconstruction.

  • Analyze the impact of Radical Reconstruction on Southern society by examining changes in government, race relations, and economic systems in the former Confederate states.

  • Assess the factors that led to the collapse of Reconstruction and explain the short- and long-term consequences for African Americans and the nation as a whole.

The Meaning of Freedom

  • Focus Question: What visions of freedom did the former slaves and slaveholders pursue in the postwar South?

Embracing Freedom

  • Understanding of Freedom:
      - African Americans’ experiences of slavery shaped their understanding of freedom.
      - Goals included escaping injustices of slavery and sharing in the rights and opportunities of American citizens.

  • Desires for Freedom:
      - Included free travel, association, family reunification, and educational opportunities.

Centrality of Families in Freedom

  • Family Importance:
      - The family was central to the post-emancipation Black community.
      - Efforts were made to locate missing family members.
      - Emancipation introduced the idea of separate “spheres” for men and women.

Rise of Independent Black Institutions

  • Church and School:
      - The emergence of independent Black churches that also served as schools, social centers, and political gathering places.
      - A widespread desire for education led to the creation of the nation’s first Black colleges.

Politics and Labor

  • Political Freedom:
      - The right to vote became a central demand.
      - Political actions were aimed at achieving full citizenship.

  • Land, Labor, and Freedom:
      - Concepts of freedom were intertwined with landownership; many believed they had earned a right to land through their labor on plantations.

New Labor Paradigms

  • Masters and Free Labor:
      - The Civil War led to substantial changes for planter families, many of whom faced poverty and labor for the first time.
      - Many planters had a limited view of Black freedom, believing it did not extend to political or economic equality.

  • The Free Labor Vision:
      - The Republican North viewed free labor as essential; they believed that allowing formerly enslaved people to work freely would boost productivity and contribute to the Southern economy.

Attempted Land Reform

The Freedmen’s Bureau

  • Social Policy Initiative:
      - The Freedmen’s Bureau operated from 1865 to 1870 and aimed to assist formerly enslaved individuals.
      - Achieved successes in education and healthcare but failed economically.

Failure of Land Reform

  • Desire for Land Ownership:
      - Freedpeople sought ownership rather than jobs on plantations, but the hope for land distribution was largely unrealized.
      - This resulted in most remaining poor and landless.
      - Many turned to agriculture, unskilled labor, and domestic work.

New Labor Systems

  • Toward a New South:
      - New labor dynamics emerged:
      - Task System: A system of closely supervised wage labor.
      - Sharecropping: A system that resulted from the crop-lien economy; many farmers, regardless of race, remained in debt.

The New Social Classes

  • Urban Growth:
      - Southern cities grew rapidly, with the development of railroads and an emerging urban middle class.
      - There were striking parallels between the U.S. and other regions in the Western Hemisphere regarding freedom and labor dynamics.

The Making of Radical Reconstruction

  • Focus Question: What were the sources, goals, and competing visions for Reconstruction?

Johnson’s Vision

  • Andrew Johnson:
      - A staunch supporter of the Union despite being from Tennessee.
      - Republicans nominated him as vice president to gain Southern support.
      - After Lincoln’s assassination, Johnson's obstinacy and racism created significant conflicts.

Presidential Reconstruction Challenges

  • Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan:
      - Pardon was granted to most white Southerners.
      - Provisional governors were appointed for Southern affairs.
      - Only required to abolish slavery and refuse to pay Confederate debt.
      - His plan backfired, allowing former Confederate elites to regain power.

Responding to Johnson

  • The Black Codes:
      - New southern laws regulated the lives of formerly enslaved people; restrictions included voting and serving on juries.
      - Vagrancy laws and labor regulations emerged.
      - The end of slavery did not guarantee freedom.

Radical Republicans

  • Demands for Change:
      - Radical Republicans sought the dissolution of southern governments and the exclusion of “rebels” from power.
      - They spearheaded the campaign for Black male suffrage and land redistribution, although the latter faced resistance.

Civil Rights Origins and Developments

Civil Rights Bill of 1866

  • Key Features:
      - Established citizenship for all born in the U.S. and ensured equality before the law.
      - Initially vetoed by Johnson, but Congress overrode the veto with a two-thirds majority.

The Fourteenth Amendment

  • Key Provisions:
      - Birthright citizenship: Federal powers expanded to protect citizens' rights.
      - Established equal protection under the law but omitted provisions for Black suffrage.

The Radical Victory

  • Reconstruction Act:
      - Central issues included the Fourteenth Amendment, leading to political upheaval.
      - It introduced a period known as Radical Reconstruction through military governance and new state governments including Black male suffrage.

Impeachment and the Election of Grant

  • Johnson’s Impeachment:
      - The Tenure of Office Act restricted the president’s ability to remove officeholders without Senate approval.
      - Johnson’s impeachment trial followed his flouting of this act.
      - Republicans endorsed Ulysses S. Grant for presidency.

Constitutional Reform

  • The Fifteenth Amendment:
      - Prohibited voter discrimination based on race and was the culmination of the abolitionist movement.
      - Allowed for conditions like literacy tests and poll taxes.
      - Did not grant voting rights to women.

  • The Second Founding:
      - Principles of legal equality transformed the dynamic between federal and state authorities and became a pivotal moment in American history.

Women’s Freedom

  • Boundary Issues:
      - The Burlingame Treaty reaffirmed Chinese sovereignty while protecting their rights in the U.S.
      - Discrimination against Asian immigrants persisted until the twentieth century.

Impact on Feminism and Women’s Rights

  • Emerging Feminist Movement:
      - Abolition of slavery prompted feminists to campaign for women’s rights, including divorce law reforms.
      - Conflict arose within the feminist movement due to divisions over the Fifteenth Amendment; some feminists opposed it for not including women.

Radical Reconstruction in the South

  • Focus Question: What were the social and political effects of Radical Reconstruction in the South?

Black Political Activity

  • Emergence of Activism:
      - Increased political engagement among formerly enslaved people through initiatives like the Union League.
      - By 1870, all former Confederate states were readmitted with new constitutions.

Increase in Black Officeholders

  • Political Representation:
      - Despite a predominance of white officials, Black individuals held positions in government, ensuring some degree of legal equality.

Early Reconstruction in the South

Carpetbaggers and Scalawags

  • Fixtures of Reconstruction:
      - Carpetbaggers: Northerners who settled in the South; often former Union soldiers.
      - Scalawags: Southern Republicans, mainly non-slaveholding white farmers, who supported Reconstruction.

Achievements of Reconstruction

  • Public Works and Education:
      - Established first state-supported public schools and civil rights legislation to support rural laborers and economic recovery.

The Overthrow of Reconstruction

  • Focus Question: What were the main factors for the overthrow of Reconstruction in both the North and the South?

Resistance to Reconstruction

  • Opposition from Southern Leaders:
      - Traditional leaders objected to Reconstruction governments, leading to rising taxes and systemic violence, including the establishment of groups like the Ku Klux Klan.

Legal Responses to Violence

  • Enforcement Act:
      - Legislation aimed at curbing the violence of terrorist societies and empower the federal government to act.

Retreat from Radicalism

Liberal Republicans

  • Shift in Northern Attitudes:
      - The North’s commitment waned in the 1870s; a new generation of Republicans proposed that the South should manage its own reconstruction.

Resurgence of Racism

  • Economic Challenges:
      - A severe economic depression in 1873 further eroded commitment to civil rights.

Legislative Actions and Court Decisions

  • Civil Rights Act of 1875:
      - Attempted to abolish racial discrimination but faced significant judicial setbacks.

The Abandonment of Reconstruction

The Triumph of the Redeemers

  • Return of Southern Democrats:
      - The Redeemer movement sought to reclaim Southern control leading to renewed violence.

The Disputed Election and Bargain of 1877

  • Election Complications:
      - The election of 1876 was contested, resulting in a compromise whereby federal troops were removed from the South, marking the end of Reconstruction.

Conclusion: The End of Reconstruction

  • Historical Significance:
      - Reconstruction represented a significant era of change, illustrating the tensions inherent in 19th-century American ideas of freedom and equality.

Summary

  • The Meaning of Freedom:
      - Formerly enslaved individuals defined freedom broadly while former slaveholders limited it.

  • The Making of Radical Reconstruction:
      - Rooted in conflict between Congress and President Johnson, aiming to redefine civil rights and citizenship.

  • Radical Reconstruction's Impact on the South:
      - It led to increased political participation among Black individuals and civil rights advances but faced significant opposition.

  • Overthrow Factors:
      - Reconstruction ultimately collapsed due to violence, a retreat from Northern commitment, economic downturns, and political compromise, leading to a loss of Black civil rights enforcement.