Midterm
Ch. 1 The History of I/O Psychology
difference between I and O:
Industrial psychology (sometimes called personnel psychology) has long been associated with job analysis, training, selection, and performance measurement/appraisal.
Organizational psychology, in contrast, deals with motivation, work attitudes, and leadership, as well as the structure, culture, and processes of organizations.
know one major event in each time period and how influenced I/O
Pre WW1:
Fredrick Taylor and Frank & Lillian Gillbreth are founders of scientific management , which is the method of breaking things down to their smallest parts for optimization. Lillian Gillbreth is also known as the mother of management.
WW1 — Pre WW2:
The Journal of Applied Psychology tried to send “morons” to war because they supposedly a) had no life goals b) robotic and follow any orders and c) wouldn’t recognize the danger in going. Moreover, if they died, the smart people would be lef behind.
The Hawrthorne Studies studied the affects of lightning in the workplace. The study found that both increasing and decreasing lighting increased the productivity and they concluded that it was not the lightning, it was the novelty of the lightining that was increasing productivity.
WW2:
The Aviation Psychology Program was used to pick good pilots, but led to the standarization of the cockpit area. This was an example f applied I/O psychology.
1940s — 1960s:
Division 14 of APA was formed (now called SIOP).
The belief that people want to work was increasing and cooersion was decreasing.
1960s — 1980s:
The Civil Rights Act was present and organizations had to justify their hiring choices. They could not discriminate based on SNoRRC (sex, national origin, race, religon, color).
1980s — 2000s:
Focus shifted to organizational change, primarily making change more comforatable and keeping up with technology to stay in business.
2000s — 2020:
Major changes in the workforce, the work itself, and the oranizations. There was more diversity in the workforce (sex, age, ethnicity, education), more emphasis on technology in the work, and more globalization in thr oganization (global comeption, outsourcing).
2020 — present:
Better technology, forced adpatability, emphasis on mental health, and more frequent career changes are some the primary affects of Covid.
changes in work & workforce, SIOP trends psychology
Work: primarily technology based changes, such as remote jobs and artifical intellgence.
Workforce: primarily diversity based changes, such as sex and ethnicity.
Ch. 2 Research methods in I/O
be able to identify and describe different research methods (primary: experimental, descriptive methods: observation, survey, interview, case study, secondary: meta-analysis, archival research)
Correlational/Descriptive Methods:
Observation:
Naturalistic: data is collected as it occurs in nature, without any manipulation by the observer
Systematic: data is collected by structured and meticulous observation of subjects within a controlled and predetermined framework
Participant Observer: the researcher immerses themself in a particular social setting or group, observing the behaviors, interactions, and practices of the participants
Pros: generalizable, more variables, more options and data
Cons: lack of control, research bias, reactivity, ethics, access
Self-Report:
Interview: A data collection technique where a researcher engages in direct conversation with individuals to gather information about their thoughts, experiences, and behaviors.
Survey: A data collection technique that involves selecting a sample of respondents and administering some type of questionnaire.
Pros: cheap, quick, reusable, anonymous, large scale
Cons: boas, bad questions, honesty, not specific
Case Study:
Pros: in depth
Cons: hard to generalize, can’t replicate, time consuming
Experimental Methods:
Experiment: there is a control group and random assignment
Pro: potentially find cause and effect
Con: ethics and hard to truly randomize
Quasi-experiment: there is a control group but no random assignment
Pro: don’t have to worry about randomization (more feasible)
Con: can’t find true cause and effect
Pre-experiment: there is no control group and no random assignment
Pro: helpful in exploration
Con: can’t find true cause and effect
types of reliability (test-retest, parallel forms, inter-rater, internal consistency)
Test-retest reliability: Stability of the test over time
parallel forms reliability: Equivalence of two test forms
inter-rater reliability: Equivalence of two raters
internal cosistency reliability: Consistecy among test items
Split half reliability: split the test in half to see if one-half is equivalent to the othee
Inter-item reliability (Cronbach’s alpha): examining the correlations among all test items to determine consistency (Rule of thumb for reliability level: .70)
types of validity (construct, content, criterion)
construct validity: the extent to which a test measures the underlying construct it was intended to measure
content validity: degree to which a test/predictor covers a representative sample of the quality being assessed
criterion validity: degree to which a test is a good predictor of attitudes, behavior, or performance
internal and external validity (define, threats to each, how to control for them, be able to identify threats to a study) (internal validity resource posted on Moodle)
internal validity: the extent to which causal inferences can be drawn about variables (ruling out alternative explanations)
threats: history, maturation, instrumentation, testing regression, & selection, attriction/mortality, diffusion of treatment (within subjects, then between subjects)
control for threats: mature group, reliable testing, randomization, incentivaztion, and seperation
external validity: the extent to which results generalize to other settings, people, time (generalizability)
threats: setting, participants, time
control for threats: controlled setting and randomized particpants
ethical issues in research (specifically how APA principles apply to I-O)
issues of competence, human relations, public statements, record keeping, education and training, therapy, ethics, privacy and confidentiality, research and publication, and assessment
You can’t fire people, treat them unequally, or make someone experience something bad
basic descriptive statistics (be able to compute mean, median, mode, be able to interpret standard deviation)
mean: add all values and divide by number of values
median: the middle value when sorted numerically
mode: value that appears the most
standard deviation: on average, how far each value is from the mean
NOTE: Hey diddle, diddle. The median’s the middle. You and and divide for the mean. The mode is the one that appears the most and the range is the diff-er-ence between.
correlations (interpretation only, no calculations)
How related two things are in the range of -1 to 1. [-1] represents a very strong negative correlation (as one things increases the other decreases and this happens the majority of the time). [1] represents a very strong positive correlation (as one things increases the other also increases and this happens the majority of the time). [0] represents a weak correlation, or a lack of a relationship.
Ch. 3 Job Analysis
purposes of job analysis
Uses to KSAOs to evaluate all goes into a job (requirments and roles)
KSAOs, SME
Knowledge, Skills Abilities, Other
Subject Matter Experts
difference between job-oriented vs worker-oriented approaches (you do not need to know the different methods of job-oriented and worker-oriented)
Job Oriented: Approaches to job analysis that focus on describing the various tasks that are performed on the job.
Worker Oriented: Approaches to job analysis that examine broad human behaviors involved in work activities.
job evaluation (internal vs external equity, compensable factors, gender wage gap)
Job Evaluation: As an outcome of job analysis, a technique that attempts to determine the value or worth of particular jobs to organizations so that salaries can be set accordingly.
Internal Equity: Jobs of greater value are better compensated than those of lesser value within the company. This can be measured by a point system and compensable factors.
External Equity: Jobs within the company are similarly compensated as jobs outside the company.
Compensable Factors: Dimensions or factors that are used to rate jobs, indicating that employees are compensated based on these factors. Examples include effort, skill, responsibility, and working conditions.
Gender Wage Gap: Women get paid approximately 18% less than men, but when mothers are excluded from the sample, this gap almsot entirely dissapears.
Ch. 4 Criterion Measurement
ultimate vs actual criterion
Ultimate Criterion: A theoretical construct encompassing all performance aspects that define success on the job.
Actual Criteron: Our best real-world representative of the ultimate criterion, which we develop to reflect or overlap with the ultimate criterion as much as possible.
be able to define and identify criterion relevance, criterion contamination, and criterion deficiency
Criterion Relevance: The extent to which the actual criterion measure is related to the ultimate criterion.
Criterion Contamination: A condition in which things measured by the actual criterion are not part of the ultimate criterion.
Criterion Deficiency: A condition in which dimensions in the ultimate measure are not part of or are not captured by the actual measure.
criteria for criteria
Reliability: The extent to which the actual criterion measure is stable or consistent
Sensitivity: The extent to which the actual criterion measure can discriminate among effective and ineffective employees
Practicality: The degree to which the actual criterion can and will be used by those whose job it is to use it for making important decisions
Fairness: The extent to which the actual criterion measure is perceived by employees to be just and reasonable
Relevance: The extent to which the actual criterion measure is related to the ultimate criterion
types of performance criteria (objective vs. subjective, multiple vs composite)
Objective Criteria: Performance measures that are based on counting rather than on subjective judgments or evaluations; sometimes called hard or nonjudgmental criteria.
Subjective Criteria: Performance measures that are based on the judgments or evaluations of others rather than on objective measures such as counting; sometimes called soft or judgmental criteria.
Mulitple Criteria: using several distinct measures to evaluate performance.
Composite Criteria: A weighted combination of multiple criteria that results in a single index of performance.
CH 5 Performance Appraisal/Management
uses of performance appraisal
Performance Appraisal: Systematic review and evaluation of job performance.
Uses of Performance Appraisal: Personnel decisions (promoted, fired, demoted, or laid off), developmental purposes (employees informed of strengths and weaknesses)
difference b/w performance appraisal & performance management
Performance Management: A system of individual performance improvement that typically includes (1) objective goal setting, (2) continuous coaching and feedback, (3) performance appraisal, and (4) development planning.
Differnece Between Performance Management and Performance Appraisal: Performance appraisal is a review of job performance, which is only a small part of performance management, which includes coaching, planning, and goal setting based off of performance appraisal
types of performance appraisal (comparative methods, individual methods, advantages & disadvantages)
Graphic Rating Scales: A numbered scale in which the rater is asked to judge how much of each particular trait the ratee possesses or where on this dimension the ratee falls with respect to organizational expectations.
BARS: A performance appraisal format that uses behavioral descriptors for evaluation.
Checklists: Raters are asked to read a large number of behavioral statements and to check off each behavior that the employee exhibits.
Employee Comparison Methods: Evaluation of ratees with respect to how they measure up to or compare with other employees.
Pros and Cons of Graphic Rating Scales: Easy to develop and easy to use BUT lack of precision in dimensions and lack of precision in anchors
Pros and Cons of BARS: Precise and well-defined scales (good for coaching) and well received by raters and ratees BUT time and money intensive and no evidence that it is more accurate than other formats
Pros and Cons of Checklists: Easy to develop and easy to use BUT rater errors such as halo, leniency, and severity are quite frequent
Pros and Cons of Employee Comparison Methods: Precise rankings are possible and seful for making administrative rewards on a limited basis BUT time intensive and not well received by raters (paired comparison) or ratees (forced distribution)
cognitive processes in performance appraisal
Steps of Cognitive Process: Observe behavior, encode information about behavior, store information, retrieve information, intergrate information
Errors in Cognitive Process: Miss important behaviors, encode information incorrectly, store wrong or irrelevant ifnormation, retireve wrong or irrelevant information, make wrong decision based on incorrect ot imcomplete information
types of rating errors & how to control for rating errors
Types of errors: Halo, Leniency, Central Tendency, Severity
Halo: The rating error that results from either (1) a rater’s tendency to use his or her global evaluation of a ratee in making dimension-specific ratings for that ratee or (2) a rater’s unwillingness to discriminate between independent dimensions of a ratee’s performance.
Leniency: The rating error that results when (1) the mean of one’s ratings across ratees is higher than the mean of all ratees across all raters or (2) the mean of one’s ratings is higher than the midpoint of the scale.
Central Tendency: The tendency to use only the midpoint of the scale in rating one’s employees.
Severity: The tendency to use only the low end of the scale or to give consistently lower ratings to one’s employees than other raters do.
CH 6 Predictors
how to evaluate predictors (validity, fairness, etc)
Evaluations of Predictors: Valdity, Fairness, Cost, Applicability
be able to describe each predictor, advantages and disadvantages
Predictors: Cognitive Ability Tests, Psychomotor Tests, Personality Tests, Integrity Tests, Work Samples, Assessment Centers, Biographical Information, & Interviews
Cognitive Ability Tests: General & Specific Cognitive Ability Tests used to measure your M#$&@R F^#@+$G cognitive ability
Psychomotor Tests: Tests that measure both the speed and the accuracy of motor and sensory coordination.
Personality Tests: Tests in which numbers are systematically assigned to individuals’ characteristics.
Integrity Tests: Tests used in an attempt to predict whether an employee will engage in counterproductive or dishonest work-related behaviors such as cheating, stealing, or sabotage; also called honesty tests.
Work Samples: Tests that attempt to duplicate performance criteria measures and use them as predictors, thus forming miniature replicas of the job.
Assessment Centers: An approach or method in which multiple raters (assessors) evaluate applicants or incumbents (assessees) on a standardized set of predictors (exercises).
Biographical Information: In the context of selection, any information that is descriptive of an individual’s personal history.
Interviews: Procedures designed to predict future performance based on an applicant’s oral responses to a series of oral questions.
know relative validity of each predictor (not exact validity coefficient but which are better, which are worse, how to improve)
Valdity of Predictors (ranked): Cognitive ability, biodata, situational judgement tests, personality tests, emotional intellegence, integrity tests
General Cognitive Ability: .48 - .53
Specific Cognitive Ability: .35 - .50
Biodata: .20 - .52
Situational judgment tests: .24 - .38
Personality tests: .20 - .37
Emotional intelligence: .28 - .29
Integrity tests: .12 - .26
Letters of recommendation: .13