Comprehensive Study Guide: Germany - Development of Dictatorship, 1918-1945

The Establishment of the Weimar Republic and Its Early Problems

The Abdication of the Kaiser and the German Revolution ($1918-19$)

• Allied Demands for Peace: Towards the end of the First World War, the Allies insisted on the abdication of the Kaiser before they would consider making peace with Germany. They stated they would only negotiate with the "representatives of the people."

• Internal Pressure: There were substantial calls from the German population itself for Kaiser Wilheim II to abdicate.

• The Kiel Mutiny ($25 \text{ October } 1918$): This military mutiny and subsequent protests were crucial catalysts in the collapse of the imperial government.

• The Abdication and Armistice: Two days after the abdication of Kaiser Wilheim II, the armistice was signed, marking the end of the First World War ($11 \text{ November } 1918$).

• Establishment of the Republic: On the day following the Kaiser’s abdication, a republic was established with Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the SDP, at its head.

• Early Criticism: From its inception, the new government faced criticism for forcing the Kaiser’s abdication and for what was seen as prematurely ending the war.

The Weimar Constitution: Strengths and Weaknesses

• The National Assembly: Elections for a new National Assembly were held on $19 \text{ January } 1919$. The election saw high political engagement, with $82\%$ of the electorate participating. This assembly formed what became known as the Weimar Republic.

• Democratic Guarantees: The Weimar Constitution was highly democratic, promising all German citizens civil liberties, including equality and the freedom of speech and religion.

• Voting Rights: Parliamentary democracy was established with universal suffrage, giving the vote to all men and women over the age of $20$.

• The System of Proportional Representation: The Constitution implemented proportional representation in the Reichstag. This led to several structural weaknesses:

  • Weak Coalitions: No single party could easily gain a majority, leading to the formation of unstable coalitions.

  • Political Instability: Between $1919$ and $1923$, there were $7 \text{ different chancellors}$ due to the failure of these coalitions.

  • Legislative Difficulties: Constant disagreements between parties, especially extremist groups like the KPD (Far Left) and the DNVP (Far Right), made it nearly impossible to pass laws to address national crises.

Reactions to the Treaty of Versailles ($28th \text{ June } 1919$)

• The 'Diktat': The treaty was widely referred to as a "diktat" because Germany was not allowed to participate in the peace negotiations and had no choice but to sign the final terms.

• Military Reductions: The army was strictly limited to $100,000 \text{ men}$. This reduction of military power directly led to the right-wing Kapp Putsch.

• 'Dolchstoss' (The Stab in the Back): A widespread belief emerged that the German army could have continued fighting but was betrayed at home.

• 'November Criminals': The politicians who signed the Treaty of Versailles were branded as the "November Criminals" by those who believed they had stabbed Germany in the back.

• Reparations and Economic Hardship: The treaty imposed severe financial burdens on a nation already bankrupted by the war.

  • Total Debt: Reparations were set at a total of $£6600 \text{ million}$.

  • Payment Terms: Germany was expected to pay $£100 \text{ million}$ annually, plus $25\%$ of the value of all German exports.

• Territorial Loss: Germany was forced to cede $13\%$ of its European territory.

  • This included the loss of almost $50\%$ of its iron reserves.

  • It also included the loss of $15\%$ of its coal reserves.

• Economic Consequences: The loss of resource-rich land combined with heavy reparations placed the economy in an impossible situation, directly leading to the hyperinflation crisis.

Challenges from the Right and Left

• The Spartacist Uprising (January $1919$): A Left-wing revolt that the government struggled to suppress due to the military limits imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.

• The Freikorps: To defeat the Spartacists, Friedrich Ebert and his defense minister, Noske, used the Freikorps—paramilitary groups of ex-soldiers. This force grew to $250,000$ and successfully crushed the uprising by $15th \text{ January } 1919$.

• The Kapp Putsch: A major Right-wing challenge involving members of the Freikorps attempting to take over Berlin.

• French Occupation of the Ruhr: Occurred when Germany defaulted on reparations, prompting French and Belgian troops to seize the industrial heartland of Germany.

• Hyperinflation: The result of the government printing money to pay workers and debts during the Ruhr crisis, which decimated the value of the German Mark.

The Recovery of Germany ($1924-29$)

Economic Stabilization and Stresemann

• Gustav Stresemann: The political figure primarily credited with Germany’s recovery through his roles as Chancellor and Foreign Minister.

• Rentenmark: A temporary new currency introduced to restore confidence and end the hyperinflation crisis.

• The Dawes Plan ($1924$): An agreement that reorganized reparations and secured vital US loans for the recovery of the German economy.

• The Young Plan ($1929$): A further revision that reduced the total reparations figure and gave Germany more time to pay.

• US Loans: Massive financial investment from the United States served as the engine for German economic growth during the mid-$1920s$.

Successes in Foreign Policy

• Locarno Treaties ($1925$): Agreements that secured Germany’s western borders and improved relations with France and Britain.

• League of Nations: Germany was accepted as a member in $1926$, marking its return to international diplomatic standing.

• Kellogg-Briand Pact ($1928$): An international accord where countries pledged to resolve disputes peacefully rather than through war.

The Rise of Hitler and the National Socialists

Hitler and the German Workers' Party ($1920-33$)

• Early Party Growth: Hitler joined the German Workers' Party (DAP) and implemented changes to the party between $1920$ and $1922$.

• The Munich Putsch ($1923$):

  • Causes: Discontent over the Ruhr occupation and hyperinflation.

  • Events: Hitler attempted a violent takeover in Munich (the "Beer Hall Putsch").

  • Results: The putsch failed, Hitler was imprisoned, and the party decided to change tactics toward a legal path to power.

• Reorganisation ($1924-28$): During Hitler's prison term and the years following, the party was restructured into a national organization.

The Impact of the Great Depression

• Economic Collapse: The $1929$ stock market crash led to the withdrawal of US loans, mass unemployment, and poverty in Germany.

• Nazi Methods to Win Support: Sophisticated use of propaganda, charismatic oratory by Hitler, and the use of simple slogans like "Work and Bread."

• The Role of the SA: The Sturmabteilung (Brownshirts) provided security for the Nazis and disrupted the meetings of political opponents, creating a sense of order amid chaos.

The Seizure of Power ($1932$ – January $1933$)

• The Political Vacuum: A series of weak governments failed to solve the economic crisis.

• Key Political Actors:

  • von Papen: A conservative politician involved in the maneuvering that led to Hitler’s chancellorship.

  • von Schleicher: The penultimate Chancellor before the Nazi takeover.

  • von Hindenburg: The President who eventually appointed Hitler as Chancellor on $30 \text{ January } 1933$.

Nazi Germany ($1933-39$)

Setting up the Dictatorship

• Reichstag Fire: A pivotal event used by the Nazis to justify the suspension of civil liberties and the arrest of Communists.

• The Enabling Act: Passed in March $1933$, this act gave Hitler the legal power to make laws without the Reichstag’s permission.

• Night of the Long Knives: A purge in $1934$ targeting the leadership of the SA and other political rivals to consolidate Hitler’s control.

• Hitler as F9hrer: Upon Hindenburg's death, Hitler combined the roles of President and Chancellor into a single, absolute position.

Control, Social Policy, and Racial Persecution

• Methods of Nazi Control:

  • Police State: Reliance on the Gestapo, the SS, and the SD.

  • Propaganda and Censorship: Controlled by Joseph Goebbels to ensure absolute ideological conformity.

• Social Policies:

  • Education: Indoctrination of children through revised curricula and textbooks.

  • The Young: Mandatory membership in the Hitler Youth and the League of German Maidens (BDM).

  • Women: Policies focused on motherhood and domesticity, often summarized as Kinder, K9che, Kirche.

  • The Churches: The Nazis attempted to both cooperate with and control the religious institutions of Germany.

• Racial Policies: Systematic persecution of Jewish people began with legal discrimination, leading to increasing violence and social exclusion.

The Economy and Employment

• Reducing Unemployment: Through massive public works projects and secret rearmament.

• The Labour Service (RAD): Compulsory manual labor for young German men.

• The Labour Front (DAF): The organization that replaced independent trade unions.

• Strength Through Joy (KdF): A program providing leisure activities, holidays, and incentives to reconcile workers with the regime.

Germany and the Occupied Territories during the Second World War

The Holocaust and the 'Final Solution'

• Ghettos: Mandatory relocation of Jews into segregated, walled-off urban quarters.

• Death Squads: Mobile killing units (Einsatzgruppen) that carried out mass shootings in the East.

• The Final Solution: The state-sponsored plan for the industrial-scale genocide of the Jewish people in extermination camps.

The Home Front and Resistance

• Changing Role of Women: The necessity of the war effort eventually forced women back into the industrial workforce.

• Total War: The complete mobilization of all national resources for the conflict.

• Rationing and Allied Bombing: Shortages of basic goods and the psychological and physical devastation caused by the air campaigns of the Allies.

• Opposition to Hitler:

  • Edelweiss Pirates: A dissenting youth subculture.

  • The White Rose Group: A non-violent intellectual resistance group at Munich University.

  • The July Bomb Plot ($1944$): An unsuccessful attempt by military officers to assassinate Hitler and seize government control.

The End of the Third Reich

• Hitler's Death: Suicide in the Berlin bunker in April $1945$.

• The End of the War: The unconditional surrender of Germany in May $1945$ brought the Third Reich to its conclusion.