Anatomy & Physiology
Page 1: Anatomy & Physiology
Page 2: Levels of Organization
Session 1: Cells and Tissue Levels of Organization
Cells: The basic unit of construction of all living things.
Tissues: Groups of cells with similar structure or function.
Organs: Composed of two or more types of tissues performing specific functions.
Organ Systems: Groups of organs and tissues performing specific functions.
Major Features of the Cell
Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance where organelles are suspended.
Nucleus: Contains genetic information (DNA).
Mitosis: The process of cell division.
Generalized Cell Structure
Organelles Include:
Golgi Apparatus
Chromosomes
Plasma membrane
Lysosome
Nucleus
Centrioles
Cytoplasm
Nucleolus
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Mitochondrion
Ribosomes
Examples of Different Cells
Epithelial Cell
Muscle Cell
Nerve Cell
Connective Tissue Cell
Plasma Membrane
Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Function: Semi-permeable barrier for cell. Allows small particles to pass.
Page 3: Nucleus and Organelles
The Nucleus
Structure: Oval or spherical body, largest cell structure.
Components:
Surrounded by nuclear envelope with pores.
Contains chromatin, DNA, RNA.
Chromosomes: Humans have 23 pairs.
Additional Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Rough ER: Protein transport.
Smooth ER: Lipid/steroid production.
Ribosomes: Protein production.
Mitochondria: Energy generation and ATP production through cellular respiration.
Page 4: Function of Organelles
Golgi Apparatus
Function: Packaging of proteins into vesicles.
Lysosomes
Function: Contain enzymes for breakdown of organelles, RNA/DNA.
Cell Physiology
Diffusion (Passive)
Simple Diffusion: Movement down a concentration gradient until equilibrium.
Facilitated Diffusion: Requires transporter proteins when molecules are not lipid-soluble.
Osmosis (Passive)
Definition: Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Types of Solutions:
Hypotonic: Less solute concentration.
Hypertonic: More solute concentration.
Page 5: Cell Ingestion Processes
Cell Physiology: Ingestion of Particles
Pinocytosis
Definition: 'Cell-drinking', ingesting extracellular fluid and contents.
Phagocytosis
Definition: 'Cell-eating', engulfing solid particles. Involved in immune response.
Stages of Phagocytosis
Attachment: Bacterium binds to phagocyte.
Ingestion: Phagocyte engulfs the bacterium.
Killing: Bacterium is digested.
Degradation: Waste is expelled.
Tissue Classification
Types of Tissues:
Connective Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Page 6: Connective and Nervous Tissue
Connective Tissue
Functions: Structural support, protection, transportation.
Includes: Blood, bone, cartilage, adipose tissue.
Cell Types Include:
Fibroblast
Fat Cell
Macrophage
Nervous Tissue
Function: Transmits electrical impulses, including CNS and PNS.
Page 7: Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Functions: Support, protection, secretion.
Types:
Simple Epithelia: Single layer.
Stratified Epithelia: Multiple layers.
Human Tissue Types:
Simple Squamous
Simple Cuboidal
Simple Columnar
Stratified Squamous
Stratified Cuboidal
Transitional
Anatomy of the Heart
Location of the Heart
Positioned within the mediastinum, left of midline.
Apex: Inferiorly directed.
Base: Opposite apex.
Page 8: Chambers of the Heart
Left Atrium
Receives oxygenated blood from lungs.
Discharges blood to left ventricle via bicuspid valve.
Left Ventricle
Receives oxygenated blood from left atrium.
Pumps blood into the aorta.
Heart Structure Overview
Valves:
Atrioventricular: Tricuspid and bicuspid.
Semilunar: Pulmonary and aortic.
Page 9: Heart Wall Structure
Heart Wall Layers
Epicardium: Outermost layer.
Myocardium: Muscular layer responsible for contraction.
Endocardium: Smooth lining that reduces turbulence.
Page 10: Blood Circulation
Coronary Circulation
Routes:
Right and Left Coronary arteries supply the heart.
Deoxygenated blood collected by coronary sinus.
Pulmonary Circulation Pathway
Deoxygenated blood enters right atrium.
Exits right ventricle via pulmonary valve to lungs.
Oxygenated blood returns to left atrium.
Page 11: Heart Electrical System
Cardiac Cycle
Systole: Contraction phase.
Diastole: Relaxation phase.
Electrical Conduction System
SA Node: Pacemaker of heart.
Impulse spreading across atria.
AV Node delays impulse, spreads to ventricles.
Page 12: Blood Pressure Dynamics
Blood Pressure Regulation
Blood pressure = Cardiac Output x Total Peripheral Resistance.
Systolic/Diastolic values during cardiac cycle.
Page 13: Cardiac Histology
Cardiac Muscle Characteristics
Elongated cells with striations, one or two nuclei.
Contains actin and myosin, organized into sarcomeres.
Unique Properties
Excitability
Conductivity
Automaticity
Contractility
Page 14: Nervous System Overview
Functions of the Nervous System
Maintaining homeostasis, integrating information, controlling muscle contractions, glandular secretions.
Nervous System Division
CNS: Brain and spinal cord.
PNS: Cranial and spinal nerves.
Page 15: Nervous System Functions
Peripheral Nervous System
Divisions
Motor Division: Somatic and autonomic divisions.
Autonomic Division
Sympathetic: Fight or flight.
Parasympathetic: Rest and digest.
Page 16: Brain Structure
Brain Regions
Cerebrum: Higher cognitive function, divided into lobes.
Page 17: Functional Anatomy of the Brain
Diencephalon Functions
Thalamus: Sensory relay center.
Hypothalamus: Homeostasis, hormone regulation, autonomic nervous system.
Page 18: Cerebellum Function
Cerebellum Structure
Coordinates voluntary movements.
Page 19: Midbrain and Brainstem
Brainstem Function
Controls vital reflexes (heart rate, respiration).
Page 20: Cranial Nerves Overview
Cranial Nerves Functions
Sensory, Motor, Both: Various roles linked to special senses and bodily functions.
Page 21: Spinal Cord Structure
Spinal Cord Anatomy
Extends from foramen magnum to vertebral level L2.
Page 22: Meninges and Spinal Anatomy
Meninges Layers
Dura Mater: Outermost layer.
Arachnoid Mater: Middle layer.
Pia Mater: Innermost layer.
Page 23: Ventricles of the Brain
Ventricle Structure and Function
Contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that cushions the brain.
Page 24: Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Function of CSF
Protects brain, maintains pressure, nutrients exchange.
Page 25: Blood-Brain Barrier
BBB Function
Regulates substances entering the brain, protects from harmful substances.
Page 26: Blood Supply to the Brain
Circle of Willis
Maintains oxygen supply even with narrowed arteries.
Page 27: Urinary System Basics
Overview
Major excretory system includes kidneys, ureters, bladder.
Page 28: Anatomy of the Kidney
Gross Structure
Bean-shaped organs with cortex, medulla.
Page 29: Renal Corpuscle Function
Filtration
Blood filtered from glomerulus into Bowman capsule.
Page 30: Renal Tubule Function
Filtrate Modifications
Adjustments made to form urine as it passes through renal tubules.
Page 31: Filtration Phase
Filtration Process
Approximately 20% of blood plasma is filtered via renal corpuscle.
Page 32: Tubular Processes
Kidney Functions
Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, hormonal regulation.
Page 33: Hormonal Regulation
Key Hormones in Kidney Function
ADH: Increases water reabsorption.
Aldosterone: Speeds up sodium reabsorption.
Page 34: Urine Formation Steps
Basic Steps
Filtration
Reabsorption
Secretion
Excretion
Page 35: Urinary Bladder Function
Anatomy and Function
Highly distensible reservoir for urine.
Page 36: Urethra Anatomy
Structure and Control
Internal and external sphincters manage urine flow.
Page 37: Micturition Control
Micturition Process
Stretch receptors activated, automatic and voluntary control of urination.
Page 38: Common Pathologies
Pathological Conditions
Glomerulonephritis, kidney stones, chronic kidney disease.
Page 39: Congenital Disorders
Duplex Kidney & Horseshoe Kidney
Conditions impacting renal functionality and health.
Page 40: Endocrine System Overview
Function and Glands
Endocrine control through hormones affecting various body functions.
Page 41: Hormone Action
Hormonal Mechanism
Hormones circulate through blood, binding to receptors affecting target organs.
Page 42: Control of Hormone Secretion
Hormonal Regulation Mechanisms
Signals from nervous systems and feedback mechanisms influence secretion.
Page 43: Pituitary Gland Structure
Anatomy and Function
Governed by hypothalamus, regulates key body functions.
Page 44: Hormones of the Pituitary
Hormones Produced
TSH, GH, PRL, FSH, LH, ACTH with various target outcomes.
Page 45: Thyroid Gland Overview
Anatomy and Hormonal Function
Produces T3, T4, calcitonin influencing metabolism and calcium homeostasis.
Page 46: Thyroid Hormones Feedback
Regulation via Feedback Loops
Involves TRH and TSH in maintaining balance of thyroid hormones.
Page 47: Calcitonin Function
Functionality of Calcitonin
Regulates calcium levels in the bloodstream by acting in opposition to parathyroid hormone.
Page 48: Thyroid Gland and Calcium Regulation
Parathyroid Functionality
Secretes parathyroid hormone, increasing calcium levels via various pathways.
Page 49: Adrenal Gland Anatomy
Anatomy of Adrenal Glands
Adrenal cortex and medulla produce key hormones, influencing stress and metabolism.
Page 50: Catecholamines Regulation
Function of Adrenal Medulla
Epinephrine and norepinephrine prepared the body for stress responses.
Page 51: Cellular Respiration Overview
Energy Generation Process
Breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide and ATP.
Page 52: Insulin and Blood Sugar Management
Functions of Insulin
Regulates glucose uptake, storage, and mobilization in various tissues.
Page 53: Action of Insulin
Functionality Steps
Insulin facilitates cellular glucose uptake and controls blood sugar levels effectively.
Page 54: Diabetes Overview
Types of Diabetes
Distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes, management strategies.
Page 55: Blood Supply to the Orbit
Ophthalmic Artery Role
Supplies crucial structures in the orbit affecting vision and function.
Page 56: Peripheral Vascular Disease
Overview of PVD
Impacts blood flow in distal arteries, increasing risk factors and symptoms.
Page 57: Immune System Overview
Functionality and Components
Protects against diseases, including microorganisms.
Page 58: Types of Immunity
Innate vs Adaptive Immunity
Differences in specificity and response time.
Page 59: Physical Barriers
First Line of Defense
Includes skin, mucous membranes, and their functionalities in immunity.
Page 60: Inflammatory Response
Mechanism of Inflammation
Phagocytes and chemical mediators involved in protecting against infection.
Page 61: Steps of Inflammatory Response
Detailed Inflammatory Process
Step-wise activation leading to healing and recovery from injury.
Page 62: Adaptive Immunity Activation
Activation Mechanisms
Steps required to trigger an adaptive response against pathogens.
Page 63: Leukocyte Functions
Role of White Blood Cells
Varieties of leukocytes and their contributions to immune response.
Page 64: Bacteria Classification
Types of Bacteria and Their Roles
Overview of structures and classifications of bacteria.
Page 65: Bacterial and Viral Infections
Distinction Between Types
Reproductive differences and implications on host cells.
Page 66: Fungi and Protozoa
Classification and Pathogens
Overview of harmful species affecting humans.
Page 67: Lymphatic System Structure
Anatomy of the Lymphatic System
Pathways of lymph fluid and associated structures.
Page 68: Components of the Lymphatic System
Overview of Nodes and Vessels
Functions and roles of nodes and vessels in filtering lymph.
Page 69: Lymphatic Capillaries Anatomy
Structure and Functionality
Overview of permeability and fluid dynamics.
Page 70: Lymph Node Flow and Function
Node Operations
Anatomy with relevance to filtering lymph before circulation.
Page 71: Thymus Overview
Functionality in Immune Responses
Development of T-cells; immunologic mechanisms within.
Page 72: MALT Overview
Role of Mucosa-associated Lymphoid Tissue
Importance in immune detection and response.