Study Guide for PSYC 2301

PSYC 2301 Departmental Final Exam Handbook

Module 1: Introduction to Psychology

Learning Objective 1.1: Define Psychology

  • Key Terms: psychology
  • Definition: Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior.
  • Origin of the term:
    • Greek roots—"psyche" (life) and "logos" (explanation).
  • Psychologists' work areas include:
    • Forensic fields
    • Counseling and therapy for distress
    • Research laboratories
    • Diverse topics studied include: anxiety in children, effects of caffeine, cultural reactions in negotiations, and more.
  • Methods used by psychologists: observation, questionnaires, interviews, laboratory studies.
  • Introduction to various approaches in psychology that aim to understand human behavior.

Learning Objective 1.2: Define the Scientific Method in Psychology

  • Key Terms: scientific method, hypothesis
  • All psychologists employ the scientific method for research, which helps in problem-solving.
  • Human inquiry parallels scientific methods: asking questions, making observations.
  • Formal vs. informal research: Individuals often rely on trust rather than scientific evidence.
  • Steps of the scientific method:
    • Identify problem/research question.
    • Design study.
    • Collect data.
    • Analyze data.
    • Draw conclusions.
    • Communicate findings.
  • Example hypothesis: Query on exam stress and its health impact.
  • Following up with better data collection methods enhances future research.

Learning Objective 1.3: Major Schools of Thought in Psychology

  • Key Terms: psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology, behaviorism, cognitive psychology, sociocultural approach, evolutionary psychology, biological psychology.
  • Discussions include consistent themes in psychology: nature vs. nurture, free will vs. determinism, and more.
  • Schools of thought are organized according to how they respond to these significant psychological questions.

Psychoanalytic Psychology

  • Founded by Sigmund Freud focusing on unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories.
  • Importance of childhood experiences and unconscious drives as key components.
  • Techniques: talk therapy and dream analysis.

Humanistic Psychology

  • Emphasizes self-esteem and self-actualization.
  • Focuses on the concept of self and personal growth.

Behaviorism

  • Founded on observable behavior and responses.
  • Key figures: John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner.
  • Studied stimulus-response relationships and operant conditioning.

Cognitive Psychology

  • Emerged in the 1960s challenging behaviorism’s limitations.
  • Focuses on mental processes like thinking and memory.
  • Information-processing theory where the mind is likened to computer operations.

Sociocultural Psychology

  • Examines how culture and social interactions influence behavior.
  • Explores norms, values, and communication styles across cultures.

Evolutionary Psychology

  • Applies natural selection principles to human behavior and psychology.
  • Examines behaviors that enhance survival and reproduction.

Biological Psychology

  • Studies biological influences on behavior, investigating the nervous system along with its functions.

Learning Objective 1.4: Define Positive Psychology

  • Key Terms: positive psychology
  • Established by Martin Seligman, focusing on strengths and psychological well-being.
  • Topics: altruism, creativity, positive emotions.

Module 2: Research Methods in Psychology

Learning Objective 2.1: Descriptive Research Methods

  • Key Terms: case study, survey, sample, population, representative sample, naturalistic observation, laboratory observations.
  • Descriptive research aims to provide a snapshot of individuals’ thoughts or behaviors.

Case Studies

  • A detailed record of an individual's experiences or behaviors, often focusing on unique cases.
  • Example: Freud’s “Little Hans” case to develop theories.

Surveys

  • Descriptive methods that use questionnaires/interviews to assess beliefs or behaviors across a population.
  • Importance of representative samples that reflect demographics of the population of interest.

Observation Methods

  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in real-world settings without intervention (e.g., playground studies).
  • Laboratory Observation: Observing in a controlled environment to isolate variables (e.g., strange situation in developmental psychology).

Correlational Research

  • Examines the relationship between two variables.
  • Described by the correlation coefficient ranging from -1.00 to +1.00, measuring strength and direction.

Learning Objective 2.2: Experimental Method

  • Key Terms: experimental method, causal hypothesis, independent variable, dependent variable, experimental group, control group, random assignment.
  • Experimental method aims to test causal hypotheses by manipulating independent variables.
  • Distinction between the independent (manipulated) and dependent (measured) variables.

Learning Objective 2.3: Ethical Standards in Research

  • Key Terms: consent, confidentiality, debriefing, and ethical treatment of participants.
  • Necessary components for ethical research include legality, informed consent, institutional approval, and security measures against harm.

Module 3: Biology and Behavior

Learning Objective 3.1: Components of Neurons

  • Key Terms: neuron, cell body (soma), dendrites, axon.
  • Neurons consist of three main parts: cell body, dendrites (receiving), and axon (transmitting).
  • Myelin sheath is crucial for faster transmission of signals along the axons.

Learning Objective 3.2: The Synapse

  • Key Terms: synapse, presynaptic neuron, postsynaptic neuron.
  • Synapse is the junction where neurotransmitters are released to facilitate communication between neurons.

Learning Objective 3.3: Action Potential

  • Key Terms: action potential, resting potential.
  • Action potential is a rapid change in electrical charge due to sodium ions entering the neuron.
  • Neurons function via an all-or-nothing principle.

Learning Objective 3.4: Mirror Neurons

  • Key Terms: mirror neurons.
  • Mirrors neurons in the brain support observational learning and empathy by activating during both performing and observing actions.

Learning Objective 3.5: Neurotransmitters

  • Key Terms: neurotransmitters, acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, endorphins.
  • Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses; various neurotransmitters are connected to specific functions and psychological disorders.

Learning Objective 3.6: Nervous Systems

  • Key Terms: central nervous system, peripheral nervous system.
  • CNS (brain and spinal cord) vs. PNS (neurons linking CNS to body).

Learning Objective 3.7: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions

  • Key Terms: sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system.
  • SNS prepares body for stress, while parasympathetic division calms it down post-stress.

Learning Objective 3.8: Brainstem Functions

  • Key Terms: brainstem, medulla, pons, cerebellum.
  • Controls basic functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

Learning Objective 3.9: Hypothalamus Functions

  • Key Terms: hypothalamus.
  • Links nervous and endocrine systems; regulates vital functions like temperature and hunger.

Learning Objective 3.10: Limbic System Functions

  • Key Terms: limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala.
  • Responsible for emotion regulation and memory functions.

Learning Objective 3.11: Cerebrum Components

  • Key Terms: cerebrum, cerebral cortex, corpus callosum.
  • The main area responsible for thinking and decision-making.

Learning Objective 3.12: Frontal Lobes Functions

  • Key Terms: frontal lobes, motor cortex, Broca’s area.
  • Involved in higher-order functions such as reasoning and movement.

Learning Objective 3.13: Neural Plasticity

  • Key Terms: plasticity.
  • Refers to neural adaptability, allowing brain cells to reorganize and adapt in response to learning or injury.

Learning Objective 3.14: Brain Study Methods

  • Key Terms: EEG, CT scan, MRI, PET scan, fMRI.
  • Various imaging techniques used to study brain structure and function.

Learning Objective 3.15: Endocrine System Functions

  • Key Terms: endocrine system, hormones.
  • Regulatory functions concerning emotion, growth, and metabolism influenced by hormones.

Learning Objective 3.16: Behavior Genetics

  • Key Terms: behavior genetics.
  • Studies the influence of genetics vs environmental factors on behavior.

Module 4: Learning

Learning Objective 4.1: Define Learning

  • Key Terms: learning.
  • Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge, resulting from experience.

Learning Objective 4.2: Classical Conditioning

  • Key Terms: classical conditioning, UCS, UCR, CS, CR, extinction, spontaneous recovery.
  • Associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

Learning Objective 4.3: Contributions of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner

  • Key figures in establishing behavioral learning theories based on conditioning.

Learning Objective 4.4: Operant Conditioning

  • Key Terms: operant conditioning, reinforcer.
  • Learning through consequences; positive & negative reinforcements.

Learning Objective 4.5: Shaping in Learning

  • Key Terms: shaping, successive approximations.
  • Reinforcing successive steps toward a target behavior.

Learning Objective 4.6: Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement

  • Key Terms: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement.
  • Reinforcement strategies defined by the addition or removal of a stimulus to increase a behavior.

Learning Objective 4.7: Punishment Definition

  • Key Terms: punishment.
  • The process through which behaviors decrease due to consequences.

Learning Objective 4.8: Applications of Operant Conditioning

  • Key Terms: behavior modification, token economy, biofeedback.
  • Framework applications in educational and clinical environments.

Learning Objective 4.9: Observational Learning

  • Key Terms: observational learning.
  • Learning through the observation of models.

Module 5: Memory

Learning Objective 5.1: Information Processing Approach

  • Key Terms: information processing approach.
  • Framework that describes memory function using input, encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Learning Objective 5.2: Short-Term Memory Functions

  • Key Terms: short-term memory, working memory.
  • Stage of memory where information is stored temporarily.

Learning Objective 5.3: Characteristics of Long-Term Memory

  • Key Terms: long-term memory, declarative memory.
  • Permanent storage system with a limitless capacity.

Learning Objective 5.4: Memory Improvement Techniques

  • Key Terms: mnemonics, overlearning, visual imagery.
  • Strategies that facilitate memory retention and recall.

Learning Objective 5.5: Types of Memory Recall

  • Key Terms: recall, recognition.
  • Different measures of memory retrieval based on cues.

Learning Objective 5.6: Functions of Schemas

  • Key Terms: schema.
  • Organized frameworks for knowledge aiding in memory retrieval and processing.

Learning Objective 5.7: Causes of Forgetting

  • Key Terms: encoding failure, decay theory.
  • Common reasons for memory loss and retrieval failure.

Learning Objective 5.8: Reconstructive Memory Process

  • Discusses how memories can be influenced and altered by knowledge and emotions.

Learning Objective 5.9: Alzheimer’s Disease Causes

  • Major neurocognitive disorders linked to memory decline.

Module 6: Lifespan Development

Learning Objective 6.1: Cognitive Development (Piaget)

  • Key Terms: schemes, assimilation, accommodation.
  • Overview of cognitive development stages and concepts.

Learning Objective 6.2: Piaget's Stages of Development

  • Key Terms: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.
  • Describes developmental milestones in cognitive growth.

Learning Objective 6.3: Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

  • Key Terms: preconventional, conventional, postconventional.
  • Framework categorizing how morality develops over time.

Learning Objective 6.4: Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

  • Key Terms: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, etc.
  • Eight stages detailing psychosocial development across the lifespan.

Learning Objective 6.5: Longitudinal vs. Cross-Sectional Research

  • Comparative understanding of two research designs enhancing developmental understanding.

Learning Objective 6.6: Prenatal Development Stages

  • Key Terms: zygote, embryo, fetus.
  • Highlights key milestones throughout prenatal stages.

Learning Objective 6.7: Effects of Teratogens

  • Discusses negative effects on fetal development posed by harmful substances.

Learning Objective 6.8: Attachment (Harlow Studies)

  • Key Terms: contact comfort, attachment.
  • Review of attachment principles derived from Harlow's monkey studies.

Learning Objective 6.9: Patterns of Attachment

  • Key Terms: secure, resistant, avoidant, disorganized attachments.
  • Differentiates children based on attachment styles observed.

Learning Objective 6.10: Parenting Styles Effects

  • Key Terms: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive.
  • Examines how various styles impact child development.

Learning Objective 6.11: Gender and Sex Distinctions

  • Key Terms: sex, gender.
  • Differentiation between biological and cultural aspects of gender.

Learning Objective 6.12: Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity

  • Key Terms: gender identity, sexual orientation.
  • Discuss the complex interaction of identity development and societal influence.

Learning Objective 6.13: Causes of Sexual Orientation

  • Explores myths and facts regarding biological and environmental influences.

Learning Objective 6.14: Gender Role Development Theories

  • Key Terms: gender constancy, gender schema.
  • Discusses cognitive frameworks for understanding gender roles.

Module 7: Health and Stress

Learning Objective 7.1: Definitions of Stress

  • Key Terms: stress, stressors.
  • Stress is multidimensional, an emotional and physiological experience in face of threats called stressors.

Learning Objective 7.2: Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

  • Key Terms: SRRS.
  • A tool to measure life events that can lead to stress, predicting health outcomes.

Learning Objective 7.3: Impact of Daily Hassles

  • Key Terms: hassles.
  • Discusses how mundane, everyday challenges can accumulate and affect health.

Learning Objective 7.4: Stress Effects on Immune System

  • Key Terms: health psychology, biopsychosocial model.
  • Relationship of stress to immune responses and chronic health outcomes.

Learning Objective 7.5: General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

  • Key Terms: alarm stage, resistance stage, exhaustion stage.
  • Describes physiological response stages to prolonged stress.

Learning Objective 7.6: Coping Methods

  • Key Terms: problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping.
  • Distinguishes direct action vs. emotional management in dealing with stress.

Learning Objective 7.7: Factors Influencing Resistance to Stress

  • Key Terms: resilience, hardiness, social support.
  • Identifies traits that enhance coping ability and lessen stress impact.

Module 8: Personality

Learning Objective 8.1: Definition of Personality

  • Key Terms: personality.
  • Describe consistent patterns in behavior, thoughts, and feelings.

Learning Objective 8.2: Conscious vs. Unconscious Mind

  • Key Terms: unconscious, conscious, preconscious.
  • Understand the structure of the mind and how each part contributes to personality.

Learning Objective 8.3: Freud's Id, Ego, Superego

  • Key Terms: id, ego, superego.
  • Clarifies roles of unconscious drives and morality in personality development.

Learning Objective 8.4: Defense Mechanisms

  • Key Terms: defense mechanism.
  • Strategies the ego employs to manage the demands of the id and superego.

Learning Objective 8.5: Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

  • Key Terms: psychosexual stages.
  • Overview of stages outlining how personality develops through childhood.

Learning Objective 8.6: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

  • Key Terms: hierarchy of needs.
  • Presents Maslow’s five levels of human needs influencing behavior.

Learning Objective 8.7: Self-Actualization

  • Key Terms: self-actualization.
  • Concepts surrounding realizing one’s full potential based on Maslow’s theories.

Learning Objective 8.8: Big Five Personality Traits

  • Key Terms: Big Five, trait.
  • Overview of five fundamental personality dimensions using OCEAN model.

Learning Objective 8.9: Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory

  • Key Terms: social-cognitive theory, self-efficacy.
  • Discusses personality development through social learning and cognitive patterns.

Learning Objective 8.10: Inherited Personality Traits

  • Analyzes evidence for and against the genetic basis of personality characteristics.

Learning Objective 8.11: Personality Tests Types

  • Key Terms: self-report inventory, projective tests.
  • Examines different assessment methodologies for measuring personality traits.

Module 9: Psychological Disorders

Learning Objective 9.1: Criteria for Abnormal Behavior

  • Key Terms: maladaptive behavior, deviation from norms, personal distress.
  • Defines methods for diagnosing psychological disorders based on societal standards.

Learning Objective 9.2: DSM-5 Overview

  • Key Terms: DSM-5.
  • Structure and use of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

Learning Objective 9.3: Anxiety Disorders Group

  • Key Terms: agoraphobia, panic disorder, GAD, specific phobias.
  • Overview of various anxiety-related conditions and their impacts.

Learning Objective 9.4: Features of OCD

  • Discusses characteristics and symptoms associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Learning Objective 9.5: PTSD Features

  • Key Terms: post-traumatic stress disorder.
  • PTSD definition and symptoms recognized after traumatic experiences.

Learning Objective 9.6: Major Depressive Disorder

  • Key Terms: major depressive disorder.
  • Characteristics of significant depressive states and their functional impacts.

Learning Objective 9.7: Risk Factors for Suicide

  • Identifies conditions contributing to suicidal tendencies, including gender and cultural factors.

Learning Objective 9.8: Features of Bipolar Disorder

  • Key Terms: bipolar disorder, manic episode.
  • Describes symptomatology and conditions characterizing bipolar experiences.

Learning Objective 9.9: Characteristics of Schizophrenia

  • Key Terms: schizophrenia.
  • Symptoms and diagnostic features marking severe psychological illnesses.

Learning Objective 9.10: Causes of Schizophrenia

  • Discusses genetic predisposition and environmental factors influencing the disorder.

Learning Objective 9.11: Dissociative Identity Disorder Traits

  • Key Terms: dissociative identity disorder.
  • Characteristics of multi-personality psychological disorders.

Learning Objective 9.12: Personality Disorders

  • Key Terms: personality disorders.
  • Overview of common personality disorders and associated traits.

Module 10: Therapies

Learning Objective 10.1: Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist

  • Key Terms: psychologist, psychiatrist.
  • Differences in education, practice, and methods of treatment.

Learning Objective 10.2: Therapy Approaches

  • Key Terms: psychoanalysis, behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, biomedical therapy.
  • Outlines principles and techniques for various therapeutic methods.

Learning Objective 10.3: Cognitive vs. Behavioral Therapy

  • Key Terms: cognitive-behavioral therapy.
  • Distinction between cognitive strategies and behavioral interventions in therapy.

Practice Final Exam Questions

  1. d. the relationship between parent behavior and child behavior.
  2. a. apply the results to solve critical problems.
  3. b. naturalistic observation
  4. b. case study method
  5. d. questioning of a sample of people
  6. d. a correlational study
    …

References

  • Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. New York, NY, USA: Basic Books.
  • Stangor, C. (2013). Introduction to Psychology. HCCS Custom Edition. Boston, MA: Flat World Knowledge.