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1. First Amendment: Protects freedoms of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition.
2. Second Amendment: Protects the right to keep and bear arms.
3. Third Amendment: Prohibits the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner's consent.
4. Fourth Amendment: Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.
5. Fifth Amendment: Protects the right to due process, prohibits double jeopardy, and protects against self-incrimination.
6. Sixth Amendment: Guarantees the right to a fair and speedy trial by an impartial jury.
7. Seventh Amendment: Guarantees the right to a jury trial in civil cases.
8. Eighth Amendment: Prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishments.
9. Ninth Amendment: Asserts that the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution does not deny or disparage other rights retained by the people.
10. Tenth Amendment: Reserves powers not delegated to the federal government to the states and the people.
11. Eleventh Amendment: Limits the ability of individuals to sue states in federal court.
12. Twelfth Amendment: Revises the procedure for electing the President and Vice President.
13. Thirteenth Amendment: Abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude.
14. Fourteenth Amendment: Grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guarantees equal protection under the law.
15. Fifteenth Amendment: Prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."
18. Eighteenth Amendment: Prohibits the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages (Prohibition).
19. Nineteenth Amendment: Grants women the right to vote.

21. Twenty-First Amendment: Repeals the Eighteenth Amendment, ending Prohibition.
22. Twenty-Second Amendment: Limits the President to two terms in office.

26. Twenty-Sixth Amendment: Lowers the voting age to 18.

Supreme Court Cases Overview

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

  • Background: This case revolved around the establishment of a national bank and whether states had the power to tax it.

  • Main Question: Can the federal government establish a national bank, and can a state tax that bank?

  • Majority Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that Congress had implied powers under the Necessary and Proper Clause and that states could not tax the federal government.

  • Impact: Strengthened federal authority and upheld the supremacy of federal laws over state laws.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

  • Background: This case challenged the Gun-Free School Zones Act, which prohibited carrying guns in school zones.

  • Main Question: Does Congress have the authority under the Commerce Clause to criminalize possession of a firearm in a school zone?

  • Majority Decision: The Court ruled that Congress exceeded its authority under the Commerce Clause as possession of a gun in a school zone did not substantially affect interstate commerce.

  • Impact: Limited the scope of federal power over states regarding matters not directly related to commerce.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

  • Background: This case challenged racial segregation in public schools.

  • Main Question: Does racial segregation in public schools violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment?

  • Majority Decision: The Court unanimously ruled that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal, thus unconstitutional.

  • Impact: Major step in the civil rights movement, leading to desegregation and broader challenges to racial discrimination.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

  • Background: This case dealt with campaign finance laws and the regulation of independent political expenditures.

  • Main Question: Does the government have the authority to limit independent political expenditures by corporations and unions?

  • Majority Decision: The Court ruled that political spending is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment, allowing for unlimited independent expenditures.

  • Impact: Significantly changed the landscape of campaign finance, leading to the rise of Super PACs and increased corporate influence in elections.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

  • Background: This case addressed the issue of legislative apportionment and the principle of 'one person, one vote'.

  • Main Question: Can federal courts intervene in state legislative apportionment cases?

  • Majority Decision: The Court held that apportionment issues are justiciable and federal courts can decide on these matters.

  • Impact: Allowed federal courts to engage in redistricting cases, thus reducing malapportionment and enhancing electoral fairness.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

  • Background: This case addressed gerrymandering in North Carolina and the creation of a majority-minority district.

  • Main Question: Does a racially gerrymandered district violate the Equal Protection Clause?

  • Majority Decision: The Court ruled that the creation of district lines with race as the primary factor can be scrutinized under the Equal Protection Clause.

  • Impact: Established that race cannot be the sole factor in redistricting, emphasizing the need for fairness in electoral districting.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

  • Background: This case addressed whether Marbury had a right to his commission and whether the Supreme Court had the authority to review acts of Congress.

  • Main Question: Can the Supreme Court compel the delivery of commissions and does the Court have the authority to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional?

  • Majority Decision: The Court established the principle of judicial review, asserting that it has the power to strike down laws that conflict with the Constitution.

  • Impact: Established the judiciary as a co-equal branch of government with the power to check the other branches, thus laying the foundation for the modern American judicial system.

A president can be impeached for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors" (Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution).

Steps for impeachment:

  1. The House of Representatives votes on articles of impeachment (formal charges). A simple majority (more than 50%) is required to impeach.

  2. The Senate holds a trial with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presiding. A two-thirds vote (67 senators) is needed to convict and remove the president from office

  3. Dual federalism (also known as "layer cake federalism") refers to a system in which the federal and state governments operate independently, each with its own distinct responsibilities. This was more common in the early years of the U.S.

  4. Cooperative federalism (or "marble cake federalism") involves a blending of responsibilities, where the national and state governments work together to solve problems, often with federal funding influencing state policies (e.g., New Deal programs).

  • Enumerated Powers are explicitly listed in the Constitution for the federal government.

  • Implied Powers are not explicitly mentioned but are necessary to implement enumerated powers.

  • Concurrent Powers are shared between federal and state governments.

  • Reserved Powers belong solely to the states as per the Tenth Amendment.

  • Equal Protection Clause:

    • Located in the Fourteenth Amendment.

    • It mandates that no state shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction "the equal protection of the laws." This clause aims to ensure that individuals are treated equally under the law and prohibits discrimination based on race, religion, gender, or other characteristics.

  • Establishment Clause:

    • Located in the First Amendment.

    • It prohibits the government from establishing an official religion or unduly favoring one religion over another. It ensures the separation of church and state by preventing the government from promoting or endorsing religion.