Fundamentals of Atomic Structure, Water Properties, and Acid-Base Chemistry

  • Atomic Structure:

    • Nucleus: Contains protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge).

    • Electrons: Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus.

  • Elemental Diversity:

    • Atoms are basic building blocks of matter, e.g., Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen.

  • Periodic Table:

    • Organized by atomic number (number of protons).

    • Example: Hydrogen (1 proton), Potassium (90 protons).

  • Isotopes: Variants of elements with the same protons but different neutrons; can emit radiation.

  • Radiation Impact:

    • Can cause cellular damage (e.g., cancer) but used in chemotherapy and diagnostic imaging.

  • Human Body Composition:

    • Major elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen (95.5-96.5%).

    • Trace elements (3.5-4.5%): e.g., Iron for hemoglobin.

  • Molecular Formation:

    • Atoms bond to form molecules (e.g., O<em>2O<em>2 and H</em>2OH</em>2O).

  • Water Properties:

    • Polar molecule, high heat capacity, excellent solvent, allows for thermoregulation and ecological stability.

  • Acid-Base Chemistry:

    • Acids release hydrogen ions; bases release hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions.

  • Chemical Reactions:

    • Mixing strong acids and bases can cause hazardous reactions, affecting pH based on specific reactants and concentrations.


The smaller building blocks of carbohydrates are called monosaccharides. These are simple sugars that serve as the basic units for more complex carbohydrates. Common examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. When two monosaccharides combine, they form disaccharides (like sucrose), and when many monosaccharides link together, they create polysaccharides (such as starch and cellulose).

The main functions of nucleic acids include:

  1. Genetic Information Storage: Nucleic acids such as DNA store genetic information required for the development, functioning, and reproduction of living organisms.

  2. Protein Synthesis: RNA, a type of nucleic acid, plays a crucial role in translating the genetic code from DNA into proteins, which are essential for cellular functions.

  3. Transmission of Genetic Information: Nucleic acids are involved in the transmission of hereditary information from parents to offspring during reproduction.

  4. Enzymatic Functions: Some RNA molecules, known as ribozymes, have catalytic properties and can facilitate biochemical reactions.

  5. Regulating Cellular Activities: Certain nucleic acids also play roles in regulating gene expression and controlling cellular activities.
    Overall, nucleic acids are vital for the continuity of life and the proper functioning of all biological systems.