American Imperialism and the Spanish-American War Study Notes

American Imperialism and the Spanish-American War

Overview

• Time period: 1865-1917, marked by significant territorial expansion and shifting American foreign policy.

Washington’s Warnings

• Washington's Farewell Address
    - Influential in shaping American foreign policy for over 100 years, emphasizing the importance of neutrality.
    - Key quote: “… steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world,” warning against foreign entanglements that could compromise U.S. independence.

• Interpretations of Washington's Policy:
    - Some believed it supported continued isolationism, asserting the U.S. should avoid foreign alliances to maintain peace and stability.
    - Others noted Washington's endorsement of trade, indicating a nuanced approach where engagement with foreign nations was acceptable but without the binding nature of alliances.

Imperialism in the 1900s

• Known as the “Age of Imperialism.”
    - Many European nations expanded their empires by exerting economic and political control over weaker nations, driven by industrialization and competition for global resources.
    - Motives:
      - Increased demand for raw materials and new markets to fuel industrial growth.
      - Competition among European powers for influence in Asia and Africa led to conflicts and strategic alliances.

Manifest Destiny Achieved

• In 1890, the U.S. Census indicated the closure of the “frontier,” fueling debates about American identity and future paths for expansion.

• Frederick Jackson Turner:
    - Asserted that the closing of the frontier represented the end of a key ideology shaping American identity and culture, contributing to a belief in the necessity of new territories for the nation's growth.

• Resulted in a push towards expansionism:
    - Seeking new markets and resources beyond American borders became a national priority, as industrial growth necessitated an international reach.

A Sense of Mission

• Belief in America’s ability to uplift “uncivilized” peoples:
    - Emphasis on spreading Christianity and “Western Civilization,” driven by a sense of superiority and social responsibility.
    - Proposals for missionaries to teach Western culture in Latin America, framing this as both altruistic and beneficial for national interests.

• “White Man’s Burden” concept:
    - Perception of a moral obligation to civilize neighbors seen as “savage,” justifying imperialism as a benevolent act.

Opening Japan

• 1850s: American merchants profitable in China, leading to interest in Japan, which was isolated from Western contact.

• 1853: President Millard Fillmore dispatched Commodore Mathew Perry to Japan:
    - Perry's mission aimed to open trade; he arrived with 4 warships, a show of naval power that underscored American intentions.

• Result:
    - The Treaty of Kanagawa signed in 1854, opened two Japanese ports to American ships, marking the end of Japan’s isolation from the West and setting the stage for future political and economic engagement.

Purchasing Alaska

• Secretary of State William H. Seward envisioned a vast American empire:
    - A canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific was necessary for trade and military purposes, initially leading to skepticism about Alaska’s value.

• Alaska acquired in 1867 for $7.2 million from Russia:
    - The purchase area was twice the size of Texas, and critics labeled it “Seward’s Folly,” viewing it as a barren wasteland.

• Discovery of gold in the 1890s, along with oil and timber, proved Alaska a valuable acquisition, significantly contributing to the U.S. economy and strategic positioning in the Pacific.

Hawaii

• Strategic Importance: U.S. Navy and merchant ships required small islands in the Pacific for refueling and repairs, enhancing military presence and trade routes.

• Earlier American missionary presence in Hawaii (1820s) led to the establishment of sugar plantations, integrating Hawaii into the American economy.

• Hawaiians, led by Queen Liliuokalani, resisted American economic control and political interference, defending their sovereignty.

• Involvement by U.S. diplomat John Stevens, who deployed Marines to assist in a coup:
    - Annexation treaty signed by President Benjamin Harrison in 1892; Hawaii formally annexed in 1898, statehood achieved in 1959, reflecting imperialistic tendencies in the Pacific.

Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan

• Authored The Influence of Sea Power upon History:
    - Advocated for a stronger and larger Navy, arguing that national greatness and security were linked to maritime power.
    - Emphasized sea power as crucial for protecting shipping and accessing world markets, influencing naval and foreign policy.
    - Suggested overseas colonies were necessary for naval operations to support trade and demonstrate military strength.

• By early 1900s, the U.S. Navy was strong enough to support an expanded global role, reflecting increased militarization and a focus on colonial expansion.

The Spanish-American War

The Cuban Rebellion

• Cubans sought to end Spanish rule, instigating a series of revolts against colonial oppression.

• After Spain defeated an earlier rebellion, leader Jose Marti fled to the U.S. to gather support from Cuban exiles and sympathizers.

• Marti returned in 1895 to lead a revolt, which was marked by numerous casualties and destruction of sugarcane fields to provoke U.S. involvement through economic interests.

Spanish Retaliation

• Spain responded harshly with “re-concentration” camps for Cubans:
    - Resulted in thousands of deaths from starvation and diseases, alarming the American public and heightening calls for intervention.

• U.S. interest heightened due to business investments and fears of nearby rebellion spreading,

• Presidents Cleveland and McKinley initially opposed U.S. intervention for diplomatic reasons, balancing international relations with growing domestic pressures for action.

Yellow Journalism

• By 1898, American newspapers were a primary news source:
    - Editors often prioritized sensationalism over factual reporting, fueling public sentiment for war through exaggerated stories.
    - “Yellow Journalism” characterized by embellished headlines to boost circulation, played a significant role in shaping public opinion against Spain.
    - Prominent figures in this movement included Joseph Pulitzer and William Hearst, who used their influence to stir public support for war by dramatizing events in Cuba.

“Remember the Maine”

• After riots in Havana, President McKinley sent the USS Maine to protect American interests:
    - The ship exploded on February 15, 1898, killing nearly 260 crew members.
    - Initial blame placed on Spain; slogan “Remember The Maine” became a war rallying cry, encapsulating public outrage.

• Congress recognized Cuban independence, leading to a war declaration on April 25, 1898, reflecting a swift shift to military engagement.

• Historical debate persists over the cause of the explosion (malfunction vs. external attack), complicating the narrative around U.S. justification for war.

Teddy Roosevelt in the War

• Teddy Roosevelt resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Navy to lead the 1st Regiment of the U.S. Cavalry Volunteers, known as the “Rough Riders.”
    - His leadership and the image of the Rough Riders became iconic symbols of American valor and adventurous spirit during the conflict.

Teddy’s Fight

• On July 1, the Rough Riders, alongside Buffalo Soldiers, participated in the Battle of San Juan Hill:
    - This battle became one of the pivotal moments contributing to the defeat of Spanish forces in Cuba, showcasing the valor of both white and African American soldiers despite racial tensions.

“A Splendid Little War”

• Term coined by John Hay to describe the conflict, indicating a perception of a quick and successful engagement for the United States.

• War duration: 4 months with 400 American combat fatalities, viewed as relatively low compared to the larger toll of disease.

• Over 2,000 additional deaths from tropical diseases like yellow fever and malaria, reflecting the challenges faced by troops in unfamiliar environments.

• Racial dynamics:
    - Despite shared goals, Black soldiers faced discrimination and segregation, contrasting with a unified Cuban rebel army, highlighting issues of race even in the fight for liberation.

American Acquisitions

• Treaty of Paris signed on December 10, 1898, concluded the war,
    - The Teller Amendment declared the U.S. would not annex Cuba, responding to anti-imperial pressure at home.

• Acquisitions included Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, which was ceded for $20 million, marking significant territorial expansion and shaping U.S. presence in the Caribbean and Pacific.

Cuban Independence and Platt Amendment

• In 1901, Cuba gained independence under conditions set by the Platt Amendment:
    - Prohibited treaties with foreign nations, limiting Cuba's sovereignty.
    - Gave the U.S. control over Guantanamo Bay naval base, ensuring strategic military presence.
    - Allowed U.S. intervention in Cuban affairs to protect their independence, reflecting a paternalistic approach to governance.

War in the Pacific

• The Philippines served as a base for the Spanish fleet:
    - Commodore George Dewey launched a surprise attack in Manila Bay, leading to American victory and control over the islands, establishing a new front for U.S. imperial ambitions.

U.S. Imperialism in the Pacific

• Seward's Vision: U.S. could build its empire in Hawaii via trade ties and military strength.

• 1868: Acquisition of Midway Islands as a stopover for ships to China, showcasing strategic planning for expansion in the Pacific.

Rivalries in China

• American aspirations aimed towards China, which was politically and militarily weakened following the Opium Wars and internal strife.

• By the late 1800s, powerful nations, including Japan and European countries, established “Spheres of Influence” in China, increasing competition and diplomatic tensions.

• American concerns regarding potential exclusion from lucrative Chinese markets spurred calls for active U.S. involvement in Chinese affairs.

Open Door Policy

• Proposed by Secretary of State John Hay:
    - Aimed to ensure equal trading rights among foreign nations in China’s Spheres of Influence, promoting open markets and diplomatic access.
    - Initially met with skepticism from other nations, reflecting underlying tensions between imperialist powers.

• Shift in attitude following the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901):
    - A violent uprising aimed at expelling foreign influences, causing diplomatic strain.
    - International troops intervened successfully against the Boxers, asserting foreign control and further complicating China's sovereignty.

Diplomacies of the Three Progressive Presidents

Teddy Roosevelt’s Diplomacy

• Enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine:
    - Known as “Big Stick Diplomacy,” promoting U.S. interests by indicating willingness to use military force if necessary.
    - Protected smaller Caribbean nations from revolutions or European control, reinforcing U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

• Roosevelt deployed the U.S. Navy (the “Great White Fleet”) as a show of force and to demonstrate American naval capability globally.

• Introduced the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine:
    - Asserted U.S. intervention in Latin America to stabilize economies and prevent European intervention, further embedding U.S. influence in the region.

Gentlemen’s Agreement

• An informal treaty between the U.S. and Japan (1907-1908):
    - Originally allowed free immigration to the U.S., highlighting previous poor diplomatic relations.
    - Due to increased Japanese immigration to California, hostility grew:
      - Japan restricted laborer immigration in exchange for rescinding racial segregation in San Francisco schools, showcasing the intersection of immigration policy and diplomatic relations.

Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy

• Aimed to promote U.S. interests in Latin America and East Asia:
    - Focused on guaranteeing loans to foreign countries, intertwining economic influence with foreign relations.
    - Justified as a means of protecting the Panama Canal, highlighting the strategic importance of this route for international trade.

• Concept of “substituting dollars for bullets” allowed for economic control without direct military intervention, promoting the idea of economic imperialism.

Wilson’s Moral Diplomacy

• Diplomacy based on democratic values and moral progress, contrasting with his predecessors’ more aggressive tactics.

• Critique of previous administrations (TR and Taft);
    - Removed U.S. support from businesses in the Caribbean and China while promising future independence for the Philippines, emphasizing self-determination.

• U.S. involved in numerous Latin American interventions:
    - Haiti, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and during the Mexican Revolution, reflecting a complex legacy of interventionism.

• Known as “Missionary Diplomacy,” which aimed to spread democracy but faced criticism for hypocrisy and excessive intervention.

Map of U.S. Interventions and Influence

• Significant regions include:
    - Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Nicaragua, and Panama with U.S. military presence documented through interventions.

• Territories acquired: Puerto Rico and Guam (1898), control over the Panama Canal (1904) further emphasized U.S. strategic interests.

• U.S. involvement in Mexico and financial interventions in Latin America detailed, reflecting the broader patterns of American foreign policy.