War and State in Africa (Herbst)
Introduction to War and the State in Africa
The article by Jeffrey Herbst published in International Security discusses the unique challenges of state development in Africa.
Suggests that common assumptions about state strength do not uniformly apply to Africa.
Highlights that unlike Europe, war played a crucial role in state formation, which is largely absent in African history post-independence.
The Role of War in State Formation
Traditional views in political science argue that states become stronger through warfare. Examples from Europe show that war stimulated state formation.
Samuel Huntington identified war as a stimulus for state-building, while Charles Tilly claimed "war made the state, and the state made war."
Similar examples from successful third world states like South Korea and Taiwan, which developed strong state structures in the face of external threats.
Africa’s Experience Compared to Europe’s
African states generally did not undergo the same military challenges; most gained independence without significant conflict.
Even after independence, many African states did not face serious external threats, making war an overlooked factor in their political development.
The article posits that without the buffer of war, some African states struggle to develop administrative efficiency and foster nationalism.
Historical Context: War’s Impact on European State Formation
War in Europe facilitated state efficiency in tax collection and administrative capabilities, often uniting disparate populations.
The contrast in Africa is marked by long-standing peace, which has not produced similar consolidative impacts.
The absence of warfare limited the growth in revenue collection and state institutional capabilities in many African contexts.
Taxation as a Result of War
War has historically increased states' ability to collect taxes, as it creates fiscal strain that necessitates stronger revenue mechanisms.
European states that excelled in taxation were often those that engaged in wars successfully. Poor revenue states ultimately perished in conflict (as seen with Poland).
The need for taxation creates a "ratchet effect"; during war, revenue increases that do not revert to pre-war levels post-conflict.
The Development of National Identity through Conflict
Conflict historically spurred national identity by generating a sense of unity in the face of external threats (e.g., wars in Europe).
The lack of a significant external threat in Africa leads to difficulties in building a cohesive national identity. Ethnic divisions prevail over perceived national unity.
The Absence of Interstate Wars in Modern Africa
Since WWII, very few African states have been engaged in significant interstate wars.
Most conflicts are internal or address local issues rather than existential threats or territorial disputes.
Leaders rationalized maintaining colonial boundaries to prevent chaos of boundary changes.
Problems of State Consolidation in Africa
African states face a myriad of deficiencies: poverty, weak administrative systems, and fragmented societies lacking orientation to the state.
While some nations experienced elite shifts, the fundamental tasks of governance remain underdeveloped.
The elite’s vulnerabilities exacerbate authoritarian governance due to fear of losing power.
Wealth Extraction and Tax Collection Challenges
African governments are chronically short on revenue, leading to poor state services.
Reliance on tariffs and foreign trade for government revenue translates into inefficiencies and corruption.
A lack of public identity and consensus with the state inhibits accountability and tax compliance.
Trying to Forge National Identity
Efforts to accommodate ethnic diversity through decentralized government have often failed to establish unity.
The historical lack of a unifying national narrative hampers state solidarity and effectiveness.
Constraints on State Reform Without War
In Europe, war catalyzed necessary reforms for state mechanisms like taxation, which are much harder to achieve in peacetime.
In crisis situations requiring wartime mobilization, states adapted quicker due to urgent necessity.
Structural Adjustment as a Potential Alternative?
The article explores the role of structural adjustment initiatives from external actors (e.g., IMF) as a non-militaristic approach to state strengthening.
Domestic reforms face entrenched resistance, yet external pressures could provide necessary adjustments to tax structures.
Looking Forward: Is War Inevitable?
The possibility of leaders again viewing war as a path to nation-building arises as economic conditions worsen.
African leaders could consider external conflicts to distract from internal problems, similar to historical precedents in Europe.
The Permanently Weak State
The article suggests that many weak states may survive independently due to an absence of competitive pressure. Unlike historical Europe, today’s weak states are unlikely to be absorbed.
Acknowledges the importance of addressing the needs of these "permanently weak states" through those who have been historically overlooked in development discussions.
Conclusion
Summarizes the dangers involved in a gradual acceptance of conflict as a means to address weak statehood in Africa.
Indicates that understanding the dynamics of state-building in Africa requires moving beyond simplistic notions of progress and reform.