International Relations Notes
International Relations Notes
LECTURE 1
Nation-States
A nation is “a large body of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language, inhabiting a particular country or territory.”
A state “is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Hence, 'politics' for us means striving to share power or striving to influence the distribution of power, either among states or among groups within a state.” Max Weber – Politics as a Vocation
According to the 1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, a nation-state is defined by (a) settled population (b) a defined territory with borders (c) a government) (d) the ability to enter into relations with other states.
International Relations
International relations refers to the system of relationships between countries and other major global organizations (UN, large companies, non-state actors like terrorist groups, etc.)
International politics is a complex system with multiple layers. Therefore, we need concepts to help us make sense of this complexity as we talk and think about international politics
What is the State? And Sovereignty?
The state can refer to a few things:
Individual U.S. states like New York, Florida, Texas, etc.
The structure of the government of an individual nation, state, or municipality (the U.S., Canada, the city of Miami, Miami-Dade County)
A term for individual nation-states as they relate to each other on the world stage (as in the term international or international relations)
The term ‘sovereign state’ refers to states that have absolute authority and control over their territory.
Sovereignty can generally be defined as supreme authority.
Sovereignty entails hierarchy within a state (Supreme Court can overrule lower courts)
In any state, sovereignty is assigned to the person, body or institution that has the ultimate authority over other people and to change existing laws.
Foreign Policy
Foreign policy refers to the external goals a country or nation-state pursues and the strategies it uses to achieve those goals
Foreign policy is contrasted against Domestic Policy, which refers to policies that a government pursues within its own country (healthcare, roads)
Foreign policy can change or evolve in response to: new leadership within a country, changes in the views of politicians in a country, the actions of other countries, broader changes in the world
National Interest
Foreign policies are designed to pursue something called “the national interest”
National interest refers to… the interests of a nation.
In most cases, that means surviving (by protecting itself from foreign threats) and thriving (by ensuring the best possible future for the country and its people)
National interests can be expressed more precisely (spreading democracy around the world), but this can also be a cover for other interests (supporting non-democratic governments that align with your country’s interests and undermining democratic governments that are seen as opposing your country’s interests
LECTURE 2
Hard Power
Hard power is the ability to use military or economic force to achieve foreign policy goals.
This can be through war (invading a country to conquer a desired territory) or threats (demanding that a country give payments in exchange for not invading)
Soft Power
Soft power is the ability to co-opt rather than coerce. It involves shaping the preferences of others through appeal and attraction.
In the case of American soft power, our two greatest assets are our political system of democracy (self-government by the people) and our economic system of capitalism (businesses are owned by private individuals rather than the government, compete with one another to provide products and services to consumers in the pursuit of profit.
Diplomacy
Diplomacy is defined as “the art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations”
Fundamentals of the U.S. Foreign Policy
Under the Constitution, the President and Congress have shared responsibility for foreign policy
The Constitution also makes two of the president’s foreign affairs powers—making treaties and appointing diplomats—dependent on Senate approval
The State Department has four main foreign policy goals:
Protect the United States and Americans;
Advance democracy, human rights, and other global interests;
Promote international understanding of American values and policies; and
Support U.S. diplomats, government officials, and all other personnel at home and abroad who make these goals a reality.
Public Diplomacy
Public diplomacy refers to the ways in which a government or international organization communicates and engages with foreign publics to influence opinions, foster mutual understanding, and build positive relationships.
Unlike traditional diplomacy, which involves interactions between governments, public diplomacy targets the general population in other countries.
Its goal is to promote the nation's values, culture, policies, and interests abroad to shape foreign perceptions and create a favorable environment for diplomacy.
Public diplomacy uses tools such as media campaigns, cultural exchanges, educational programs, international broadcasting, and social media engagement.
It can involve governmental agencies like the U.S. Department of State, but also non-governmental actors, such as cultural institutions, universities and celebrities
Globalization
Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries through the exchange of goods, services, information, and culture. Economic globalization involves the integration of national economies into a global economy, characterized by free trade, investment, and international markets.
Cultural globalization refers to the spread of ideas, values, and cultural products across borders, often leading to greater cultural exchange but also concerns about cultural homogenization.
Political globalization is the growing importance of international organizations and agreements, such as the United Nations and World Trade Organization, in shaping global governance.
Technological globalization is driven by advancements in communication and transportation technologies, such as the internet and air travel, enabling faster and broader global interaction.
Globalization is marked by growing international exchange, more international travel, lowering of borders & boundaries that restrict the flow of money, people, goods, and ideas around the world.
Factors that enabled Globalization
Globalization has always been happening, but it is generally accepted that the world entered a new phase of globalization during the past 50 years. Several factors contributed to this:
Advanced communication technologies (fax, the internet, email, global cell phone service)
Decreased cost of shipping goods globally
Growth of large multi-national companies that were capable of expanding into new countries & markets
The opening of new economies and markets in the 1970s-1990s as previously communist or socialist economies transitioned to capitalism and joined the global economy
Global financial markets & institutions that were capable of providing capital to developing economies through bond markets, loans
Political shift to encourage globalization in the 1990s
LECTURE 3
Colonialism
Colonialism is the practice of invading and occupying other countries in order to (a) control their territory, (b) exploit their natural resources, ( c) spread the colonizer’s ideology/religion
Imperialism is similar to colonialism but refers to the expansionist vision & ideology of major colonial empires (British Empire, Spanish & Portuguese Empires)
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology or movement that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, and allegiance to a nation – and prioritizing national interests over global or external ones.
Cultural nationalism focuses on promoting and preserving a nation’s unique cultural identity, including language, traditions, and values.
Political nationalism seeks to achieve or maintain sovereignty, often advocating for self-governance and independence from external powers or foreign influence. Many times, political nationalists are seeking to establish their region as a separate country from the larger country they are a part of. (Catalonia in Spain, Quebec in Canada)
Ethnic nationalism defines the nation in terms of shared ethnicity, ancestry, or heritage, and can sometimes exclude those outside the ethnic group.
Civic nationalism promotes a shared sense of belonging based on common citizenship, political values, and institutions, rather than ethnicity. (Benjamin Rush quote earlier)
Protectionism
Protectionism is a nationalist economic policy that focuses on “protecting” certain domestic industries (agriculture, manufacturing, commodities like oil or copper) from foreign competition & global markets
During the 1800s, America had vast natural resources but lacked the established economies of England, France, Germany, and the Netherlands. If England were to flood American markets with clothing made from cotton produced in America, the American clothing manufacturing industry would be unable to compete with established factories.
As a result, tariffs were used for much of early American industry.
By the 1880s, America had become an industrial powerhouse. By 1900, the U.S. would surpass the UK and Germany as the world’s largest economy. (the US had 76 million people, Germany had 56 million, the UK had 37 million)
Internationalism
Internationalism is a political principle and ideology that advocates cooperation, collaboration, and understanding between nations to achieve common goals and resolve global issues.
Economic internationalism promotes global trade, investment, and the free flow of goods, services, and capital to boost economic growth and interdependence.
Political internationalism supports the creation of international institutions, such as the United Nations or the International Criminal Court, to mediate disputes and promote peace. Cultural internationalism encourages the exchange of ideas, values, and cultural products across borders to foster mutual understanding and global solidarity.
Liberal internationalism advocates for democracy, human rights, and international institutions to create a peaceful and cooperative global order.
Anti-Interventionism
Anti-interventionism is the idea that a country should “mind its own business” when it comes to foreign policy. Trade and diplomacy are fine, but anti-interventionists believe that their country should not use its military to intervene in foreign conflicts or to invade other countries.
Regionalism
Regionalism refers to the political, economic, or cultural cooperation among countries within a specific geographic region to achieve shared objectives.
The European Union is the primary example of a political union (with a European Parliament, a legal system, elections, its own currency and central bank)
LECTURE 4
States in the Ancient World
The original unit of human organization was the nomadic hunter-gatherer tribe
Human tribes would fight each other for territory or other resources throughout prehistory (everything before 10,000 BC)
Humanity began to organize into units larger to solve collective problems
This could be hunting larger animals. More importantly, it refers to agriculture.
Humans needed to stay in place to farm vegetables and grains. They also needed to control volatile rivers with irrigation in order to avoid floods
Early Civilizations in Ancient Mesopotamia
Prehistory: Humanity was based in nomadic tribes of hunter-gatherers. Small units with little organization beyond a few dozen people at most.
Agricultural Revolution (c. 10,000 BCE): The shift from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities enabled population growth, leading to the formation of early city-states.
Geography of Mesopotamia: Located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the fertile land allowed for surplus food production, supporting larger populations and urbanization.
Rise of Urban Centers (c. 4500-4000 BCE): Cities like Uruk, Eridu, and Ur in Sumer emerged as centers of political, economic, and religious life, laying the foundation for state-building.
The First Civilization: Sumer
City-States: Sumer was one of the first civilizations to form independent city-states like Uruk, Ur, and Eridu, each with its own political and religious center.
Cuneiform Writing: Sumerians created cuneiform, one of the earliest writing systems, for record-keeping, trade, and laws, boosting administration and culture. Religious
Religious Governance: Sumerian rulers claimed to represent the gods. Sumerian cities were centered around ziggurats, pyramid-like structures where
Irrigation and Agriculture: Sumerians mastered irrigation, enabling large-scale agriculture, population growth, and surplus food production.
Early Law Codes: Sumerians, with codes like the Code of Ur-Nammu, established early legal systems that structured justice and governance.
Trade: Sumerian cities traded with other early city-states and peoples, with items originating in Egypt and India being found in Sumerian ruins dating back to ~2600 BC.
Ancient Mesopotamian Societies at War
City-State Warfare: Sumerian city-states frequently engaged in warfare with one another over resources, territorial disputes, and control of trade routes. These conflicts were a defining feature of Sumerian political life, contributing to the development of organized militaries.
Professional Soldiers and Citizen Militias: Sumerian armies were composed of both professional soldiers and conscripted citizens, with the latter often called upon during times of war. Some soldiers specialized in specific roles, such as archers, spearmen, or charioteers.
Fortifications and Defensive Tactics: Sumerian city-states constructed large defensive walls and gates around their urban centers to protect against enemy attacks. These fortifications were a key feature in their strategy to repel invaders and withstand sieges.
Religious Justification for Warfare: Sumerian kings often invoked the will of the gods to justify military campaigns. They justified their wars on religious grounds, claiming that they were gods (or that they had the support of the gods) to legitimize wars.
LECTURE 5
International Relations in the Ancient World
As they emerged and developed thousands of years ago, ancient states began to interact with each other.
In some situations, war and conquest took place.
In others, diplomacy & trade allowed peace between different nations.
Ancient kings would send envoys to neighboring nations as diplomats. They would also send lavish gifts (gold and other rare materials) to (a) show their wealth and (b) win the support of other states
Marriages were used as a way of cementing political alliances
One of the earliest written peace agreements dates to ~2400 BC, with two Sumerian cities ending a war with a peace deal.
Alexander the Great
Created the biggest empire in human history during his short live
Conquered the Persian Empire, Egypt, and went to India
After he died, his empire collapsed into three new ones: the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Pergamon in Turkey, and Macedon
Hegemons
Hegemons are powerful states that dominate their region through force
If a hegemon exists, it has hegemony, meaning there is a state of affairs where one state is particularly dominant or more powerful than others
When there is no hegemon, we are in a more anarchic state of politics
Anarchy – a state of disorder due to absence or nonrecognition of authority
A hegemon has a stabilizing effect (until it collapses or is conquered), while anarchic states of politics are unstable and have more change
LECTURE 6
Ancient Greek Polities
Geography and Environment: Greece's mountainous terrain led to the development of independent city-states (poleis) rather than a unified empire.
Access to the sea encouraged maritime trade and cultural exchange with other Mediterranean civilizations, especially the Near East and Egypt.
Minoan Civilization (c. 3000–1450 BCE):
Located on the island of Crete, the Minoans were an early, advanced civilization known for their palaces, like Knossos.
Engaged in widespread trade and had a strong navy; known for frescoes, pottery, and the undeciphered Linear A script.
Mycenaean Civilization (c. 1600–1100 BCE):
Centered on mainland Greece, the Mycenaeans were the first advanced Greek-speaking civilization, with a warrior aristocracy.
Built fortified palaces like Mycenae and Tiryns; used Linear B script, which has been deciphered as an early form of Greek.
Engaged in both warfare and trade, notably with the Minoans and other Mediterranean cultures. Their society was hierarchically organized around a king (wanax) and warrior elite.
Athens Emerges
Athens was strategically situated near the coast, allowing it to become a powerful maritime and trading hub.
As a result, Athens grew rich and its leaders were able to provide the money necessary for the arts, culture, and philosophy to thrive.
In its early history, Athens was ruled by kings, followed by aristocrats who controlled land and wealth.
Athens became the first democracy
Persian Empire
Founded by Cyrus the Great (c. 550 BCE): Cyrus expanded Persia, creating the largest empire of its time with centralized administration and tolerance.
Ionian Revolt and First Persian War (499–490 BCE): Athens supported a revolt against Persia, leading to Darius' failed invasion and defeat at Marathon.
Second Persian War (480–479 BCE): Xerxes invaded Greece, winning early battles but losing at Salamis and Plataea, halting Persian expansion.
Persian Influence in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE): Persia funded Sparta, aiding in Athens' defeat and maintaining influence in Greek affairs.
Conquest by Alexander the Great (334–330 BCE): Persia weakened internally, allowing Alexander to conquer the empire and end its dominance
Spartan Response to Athens Rise
Post-Persian War Power Shift: After the defeat of the Persian Empire, Athens began asserting dominance over the Aegean region by forming the Delian League (478 BCE), a coalition of city-states aimed at defending against future Persian attacks.
Over time, Athens transformed the Delian League into an instrument of imperial control, compelling member states to pay tribute and submit to Athenian policies.
Athens’ wealth and naval strength grew significantly, allowing it to project power across the Greek world and develop into an Athenian empire.
Spartan Concerns: Sparta and its allies in the Peloponnese, including Corinth and Thebes, became increasingly alarmed by Athens’ aggressive expansion.
Athens' control over the Delian League, its fleet, and the tributary states threatened to shift the balance of power in Greece. Sparta & its allies created the Peloponnesian League in response.
Thuycidides
We know and care about the Peloponnesian War because of Thucydides
His history of the War was one of the first historical works ever written that tried to develop a theory of how & why states act as they do
He was the first ‘realist’, which is one of the main IR theories we will learn about later this semester
Realism is the idea that states are ultimately self-interested actors that will do everything they can to expand their power, survive and grow
What Allowed the Roman Empire to Grow
Latin language and culture, allowing subjects to become Roman citizens (instead of just vassals) helped to integrate conquered territories into Rome
Well-organized and disciplined professional military
Central geography in the Italian peninsula for conquering and trading throughout the Mediterranean
Rome’s advanced infrastructure—such as roads, aqueducts, and cities—supported military movement, communication, and economic growth in conquered territories. They also had things like sewer systems and public baths.
The development of a unified legal code helped ensure justice, stability, and consistent governance across the empire.
Roman Empire’s Decline
Rome began to decline by the 300s AD due to several factors:
Political instability caused by civil wars, weak leadership
Economic decline: Administrative, logistical, and military costs kept adding up, leading to higher taxes and ultimately inflation that undermined Rome’s economy
At the same time, the administrative & military costs of running the Empire grew dramatically
Germanic tribes, Huns, and other "barbarian" groups frequently invaded Roman territory, destabilizing the empire from its center
The Roman Empire Splits
In 286 CE, Emperor Diocletian decided to divide Rome into two sections to try and stabilize the empire.
Administrative Overload: It became increasingly difficult to govern efficiently from a single center in Rome. Diocletian recognized that one emperor alone could not manage the sprawling empire effectively.
Defense and Military Pressures: The empire faced constant invasions and internal revolts across multiple frontiers, including threats from Germanic tribes in the west and Persian forces in the east. A divided empire allowed for quicker and more localized military responses to external threats.
From the Fall of Rome to the Middle Ages
After Rome fell in 476, we can say that the Middle Ages began
The centuries between 476 and ~1000 could be called the Dark Ages, when culture declined and civilization took a step back from the sophistication of Rome
Without a hegemon to provide a stabilizing influence, small tribal-based states emerged within former Roman territories
These new states, many of which became the basis for modern European states, kept many Roman traditions like Latin, Christianity, Roman law, continued to use Roman infrastructure
LECTURE 7
Technology and Imperialism
Prior to the Age of Exploration, there was a limit on how far an empire could expand
Information & transportation networks were limited by the technology of the time. Key developments in the 1400s enable this new development
Better ships: technologies like the magnetic compass, astrolabe (star map), consistent maps, better quality ship manufacturing all make long-distance journeys across oceans possible
The Printing Press: Spread knowledge quickly, including navigational techniques, ship designs, and information about new territories, allowing better coordination across empires.
Mercantilism
Mercantilism: an economic philosophy & strategy where the state manages the economy to maximize national wealth, primarily by promoting exports and restricting imports.
The ultimate goal was to accumulate as much gold and silver as possible, as these were considered the measures of a nation's wealth and power.
Mercantilist governments use tariffs to protect domestic industry from foreign competition while using their military & diplomatic strength to open up markets to their exported goods – sometimes by force
Militaries, Governments, and Corporations
Monopolies and Charters:
Governments granted monopolies to private companies to control trade in specific regions. For example, the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company were given exclusive rights to trade in Asia. These companies had quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to sign treaties and raise armies.
These charters often came with government backing, and companies were expected to support national interests, such as expanding trade and securing colonies.
Regulation and Protectionism:
Governments imposed protective tariffs on foreign goods, regulating trade to ensure the mother country benefited from exports and limited imports. This was key to maintaining a favorable balance of trade.
State support for private companies often involved subsidies for industries like shipbuilding or textiles to ensure that domestic production thrived.
Colonial Administration:
Governments established colonial administrations to manage overseas territories, often using both military and private company resources.
Colonial governors acted as extensions of the state, enforcing mercantilist policies, collecting taxes, and overseeing the extraction of resources.
Resource extraction in colonies funded intellectual and cultural development in the colonizer’s capital
Multilateral Diplomacy
Multilateral diplomacy: a diplomatic agreement or process involving more than two nations
For example, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a multilateral agreement between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico
The United Nations is a hub for multilateral diplomacy
Multi-lateral diplomacy is potentially more likely to bring about peace because it involves more participants than two-party agreements, all parties are interested in peace, and third parties can serve as mediators on difficult issues
By contrast, a bilateral agreement involves two countries
Balance of Power
The main goal of the balance of power is to prevent any single state or coalition of states from gaining enough power to dominate or control the international system.
States often form temporary alliances to prevent one state from becoming too powerful.
These alliances shift as the distribution of power changes. For example, a country might ally with a former rival if a new threat emerges, reflecting the fluid nature of the balance of power.
LECTURE 8
The Cause of World War I
European powers engaged in an arms race, expanding their militaries and developing new technologies, which increased tensions.
Competition for overseas colonies created rivalries, particularly among Britain, France, and Germany.
Rising nationalist movements, particularly in the Balkans, created instability, as ethnic groups sought independence from empires like Austria-Hungary.
These groups wanted to establish their own independent sovereign states based around their ethnic or religious identities. This created problems for an Austro-Hungarian Empire that had brought together dozens of ethnicities and different religions throughout its history
Escalation of WWI
Both sides ended up at a stalemate, with new technology (better bombs, machine guns, tanks, poison gas) making leading to trench warfare.
Trench warfare: both sides have dug themselves into long trenches with mortars (cannons) separated by a deadly no-man’s-land, neither side can advance without extremely heavy losses
The sinking of the Lusitania and Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare brought the U.S. into the war in 1917, tipping the balance in favor of the Allies.
Unrestricted warfare: a country deciding to attack civilian targets (ships in this case) in addition to military
Germany knew that Britain and other Allies were importing military aid from the U.S., but Germany’s decision to attack non-military ships in order to block that aid ultimately backfired by causing Americans to want to enter the war
World War I
Although the war began in Europe, it quickly spread across the globe, involving colonies, non-European nations, and battles on multiple continents.
Major powers like Britain, France and Germany had vast overseas empires, and they mobilized resources, soldiers, and supplies from their colonies, making this truly a world war.
Before the U.S. entered the war, it supplied the allies with munitions, food, and financial support and became known as the “Arsenal of Democracy.”
After the war, Europe was decimated and the U.S. was by far the most powerful country on Earth.
Zimmerman Telegram
January 1917: Zimmermann Telegram (a German proposal to Mexico to join the war) brought American public opinion in favor of war.
The Telegraph was a diplomatic request by Germany for Mexico to join it in a war against the United States.
It was intercepted by British intelligence, decrypted from its secret code language, translated, and publicized. A German diplomat admitted that it was true, and many Americans called for the U.S. to enter the war
The U.S. Enters and Ends WWI
President Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war against Germany, citing the need to defend American interests and uphold democratic principles. On April 6, 1917, Congress approved the declaration, formally bringing the U.S. into the war on the side of the Allies.
At the outset of World War I in 1914, the United States maintained a policy of neutrality under President Woodrow Wilson. The U.S. sought to avoid entanglement in European conflicts and was largely focused on domestic affairs and maintaining trade relations.
The End of WWI
The U.S. rapidly mobilized, with over 2 million American soldiers were deployed to the Western Front by the end of the war.
American forces contributed to key offensives, breaking the stalemate and pushing back German forces.
U.S. industrial power helped to replenish the Allies, whose economies had been destroyed by the war
Russia exited the war following the Bolshevik Revolution, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany.
In November 1918, after months of successful Allied offensives, Germany surrendered.
In two years of fighting, the U.S. spent over $32 billion and lost 116,000 men.
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919, marking the official end of World War I. It was negotiated during the Paris Peace Conference and primarily shaped by the Allied powers who had won the war.
The Treaty aimed to prevent future conflicts, and establish a new international order based on principles laid out in President Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
It also sought to punish Germany, who was seen as the primary aggressor in the war.
Major treaty in world history – and arguably a factor that led to WWII
The League of Nations
After WWI, Wilson and other world leaders called for a League of Nations that could help prevent war and resolve conflicts peacefully
By convening all sovereign nations together, potential wars could be prevented through multilateral diplomacy
The League could serve as a mediator for conflicts, helping to prevent them and ensure global prosperity
This was a key moment in the history of internationalism – and one that would end in disappointment
Congress Rejects the League of Nations in the United States
Key moment in the history of American internationalism
Seen as high-point in anti-interventionist movement’s influence
Americans didn’t want to be committed to helping other nations around the world after WWI
Because of this, the League of Nations does not have the US (the most powerful country & largest economy in the world) as a member and it ultimately fails.
It can be seen as a trial run for what would eventually become the United Nations
Inter-War Period
The U.S. invests heavily in Great Britain & France, which recover well. Germany struggles to deal with financial costs & limitations of Versailles Treaty
Economic growth is high in the 20s – until the Great Depression, which occurred after years of financial speculation
After the crash, radical political movements like communism and fascism became more appealing to people in Europe
High unemployment and high inflation led people in Germany and other countries to lose faith in democratic institutions and ideals
Causes of World War II
Expansionism: Aggressive territorial ambitions by Germany, Italy, and Japan. Partially caused by economic crisis, which led these nations to look to conquest & military-build up as a way of creating jobs & growing economy
Hitler sought to create a greater German Reich, beginning with the remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936), the annexation of Austria (Anschluss, 1938), and the occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938-1939).
Similarly, Italy invaded Ethiopia (1935)
Japan invaded Manchuria (1931) and later China (1937).
Failure of Appeasement: British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and other European leaders signed an agreement with Hitler that would give Hitler part of Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland that contained more than 3 million people.
This was an attempt at appeasement, hoping that it would stop German aggression.
Instead, it emboldened Germany and showed that it could continue its aggression without prompting a major response
World War II
Started in 1939 with German invasion of Poland and France & UK declaring war on Germany
Allies - Initially the major ones were France & United Kingdom. France fell quickly to Germany and the US was supplying Allies with arms & loans during early war period
the U.S. joined the war in late 1941 after Pearl Harbor & German declaration of war
Soviet Union also joined Allies in Summer 1941 after Hitler betrayed Russia & invaded
Axis – Germany, Italy, Japan
New Military Tactics and Techniques
Like World War I, WWII involved the total mobilization of society for military production
Germany rapidly conquered much of Europe using "blitzkrieg" (lightning war) tactics—swift, coordinated attacks using tanks, aircraft, and infantry. Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France fell by mid-1940.
The End of WWII
German invasion of Russia goes poorly, culminating in major losses in the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942-43.
At the same time, Allies push through North Africa into Italy and ultimately overthrow the Italian government.
U.S. makes progress against Japanese in Asia.
June 1944 US & allies launch D-Day invasion of mainland Europe, freeing Paris in August 1944 and marching toward Germany.
Russian troops get to Berlin by April 1945, Hitler dies of suicide on April 30, Germany surrendered on May 7.
Japanese refuse to surrender, U.S. uses atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9). Japan surrendered on August 15 and the war ended.
Aftermath of WWII
1945 is a major year. It marked the end of World War II and the creation of the United Nations – with the backing and funding of the U.S.
Nazi officials were charged with crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg Trials (1945-46) for their actions in perpetrating the Holocaust
The defeat of Nazi Germany, fascist Italy and imperialist Japan was followed by regime change in all three countries.
Regime change: replacing one political regime with another
LECTURE 9
From WWII to The Cold War
The U.S. and Soviet Union were allies in the fight against Nazi Germany
The Soviet Union was a communist Russian government that took power in 1917 in the Bolshevik Revolution.
Before the war was even over, Americans were becoming aware of the threat of communism – and the Soviet Union’s ambitions to become a world power.
Just as fascism was defeated in Europe, communist Russia emerged as a new global rival to the U.S.
The Cold War is defined by the conflict between democratic capitalism (led by the US) and communism (led by Soviet Union)
It is also defined by the fact that both powers had nuclear weapons that could destroy the world many times over – and that they were prepared to use them against each other
Different Systems of International Relations
A unipolar world system is one where there is one world power that has global hegemony (it is the hegemon of the world system)
America after World War I
Mediterranean world under the Roman Empire
A bipolar world system is one where there are two world powers competing with one another
Cold War between US & Soviet Union
A multipolar world system is one where there are multiple competitors on the world stage
Medieval Europe
Europe in the 1800s
Early Cold War
Marshall Plan: The U.S. decides that it needs to invest a lot of money to rebuild Western Europe – and to make sure that it doesn’t turn to communism
Use of financial support as a way of gaining allies. The Soviets also provided money to Cuba and other communist or socialist countries around the world
Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948-1949): Soviets blocked access to West Berlin; the U.S. and allies responded by airlifting supplies to the city, symbolizing the division of Germany.
Meanwhile, Russia takes over eastern European states and build connections with socialist and communist movements around the world
Nuclear Arms Race
The U.S. had a monopoly on nuclear weapons until the USSR successfully tested its own atomic bomb in 1949, escalating tensions and starting the nuclear arms race
Arms race - a competition between nations for superiority in the development and accumulation of weapons
Deterrence refers to the strategy used by both the United States and the Soviet Union to prevent direct military conflict, especially nuclear war, by threatening devastating retaliation if attacked.
Deter – (verb) discourage (someone) from doing something by creating doubt or fear of the consequences.
MAD (mutually assured destruction) Doctrine: The existence of massive nuclear arsenals on both sides led to a balance of terror—any full-scale nuclear war would result in total annihilation for both the U.S. and USSR.
Cold War Alliances and Proxy Wars
NATO (1949): The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was formed as a collective defense alliance against Soviet aggression. Led & funded by the US & Western European nations
Warsaw Pact (1955): Soviet-led military alliance formed in response to NATO, solidifying the division of Europe into East and West blocs.
Because of the threat of nuclear war, the US & USSR didn’t want to fight directly
Because of this, they fought in proxy wars
LECTURE 10
Commerce Department
The Department of Commerce engages in economic diplomacy by facilitating international trade relations and representing U.S. commercial interests in global economic forums.
This can include negotiations on trade agreements (e.g., the U.S.-Mexico-Canada Agreement or USMCA), market access, and economic sanctions.
Supply Chain Politics
Supply chain: global network of production, transportation, and distribution processes that are critical to delivering goods and services, from raw materials to finished products.
Over the last few years, the U.S. has been more concerned with protecting supply chains because of:
COVID’s disruptions to global shipping and other aspects of the supply chain
Concerns about high-tech manufacturing of semiconductors being concentrated in Asia
The U.S. has prioritized securing the semiconductor supply chain, as these chips are essential for everything from smartphones to military hardware.
The U.S. government is collaborating with Taiwan, South Korea, and other countries to reduce dependency on Chinese-manufactured chips.
We also want to reduce our reliance on China for rare earth minerals used in high-tech manufacturing – especially for new green technologies like solar panels, electric vehicles, etc.
Nearshoring
Nearshoring is the practice of relocating business operations, particularly manufacturing and services, to countries that are geographically closer to the company's home country, rather than outsourcing to distant locations.
This strategy is employed to achieve benefits such as reduced transportation costs, shorter supply chains, increased efficiency, and better oversight compared to offshoring.
The State Department
The State Department is the primary U.S. diplomatic agency
It engages in:
Bilateral diplomacy: by negotiating agreements with other countries
Multilateral diplomacy: by participating in the UN and other international organizations
Public diplomacy: by taking actions to win the support of people around the world for U.S. policy
Also protect U.S. travelers abroad, occasionally helping to evacuate them from dangerous places
The Peace Corps
The Peace Corps is a U.S. government program that sends American volunteers abroad to work on community development projects in fields like education, health, agriculture, and environmental conservation.
Established in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, the Peace Corps aims to promote global peace and friendship through cultural exchange and practical assistance.
Volunteers: Serve for two years, living and working in local communities around the world, typically in rural areas or under-resourced regions.
Historical Context: Founded during the Cold War, the Peace Corps was part of Kennedy's vision for soft power diplomacy—spreading goodwill and countering negative perceptions of the U.S. while also contributing to global development.
U.S. Military
At least 750 military bases are installed in 80 countries around the world.
173,000 troops are deployed in at least 159 countries.
Military advisors deployed in or near conflict zones
Bombs, planes, tanks, and other weapons sold by US companies to US military and other nations
LECTURE 11
Foreign Policy of Europe
The European Union (EU) was formed to promote peace, stability, and economic cooperation in Europe after the devastation of World War II.
Part of the reason for forming the EU is to give European nations a bigger say in world affairs
For much of the last 500 years, European nations were the world leaders
Now, they make up a smaller part of world economy & population
EU aims to make up for shrinking power & influence by being a world leader on issues like human rights, climate change, and internationalism
Foreign Policy of China
Chinese Communist Party-led (CCP) government formed in 1949
Main foreign policy is based on the idea of Five Principles
Five Principles were first outlined in a 1954 diplomatic agreement with India:
mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty,
mutual non-aggression,
mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs,
equality and co-operation for mutual benefit, and
peaceful co-existence
China’s Foreign Policy Interests
China has developed several areas of national interest in recent decades:
Building economic relationships with other countries throughout the world
Regional security (south China sea, Taiwan)
Challenge US authority in multilateral institutions like the UN; create new ones like the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)
Use multilateral institutions to its own benefit (World Trade Organization)
As a non-democratic country, China has a different way of handling foreign policy
Leads to an us-vs-them mentality that can escalate into militarism
Belt and Road Initiative
China’s plan to expand its global economic power and create a ‘new Silk Road’
Old Silk Road connected China to Middle East and the Western world through trade
Investing in infrastructure & economic agreements, buying ports, lending money to developing economies
Silk Road Economic Belt: Overland routes connecting China with Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe.
21st Century Maritime Silk Road: Sea routes connecting China to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Different Goals of Belt & Road Initiative
Economic Growth:
Enhance trade and investment connectivity by improving infrastructure like roads, railways, ports, and airports.
Access to new markets for Chinese companies and goods.
Geopolitical Influence:
Expand China’s influence in developing countries and emerging markets.
Strengthen China’s leadership role in global governance and multilateral frameworks.
Energy Security:
Secure energy supply routes by building pipelines and energy infrastructure.
Diversify energy imports and reduce reliance on vulnerable sea routes
Debt-Trap Diplomacy
Debt-trap diplomacy refers to a situation where a extends significant loans to another country, often for large infrastructure projects, with the expectation that the borrowing nation will struggle to repay the debt.
When the borrower defaults, the lender (usually the more powerful country) gains leverage, often demanding strategic assets, political influence, or control over infrastructure as compensation.
In 2017, Sri Lanka leased its Hambantota Port to China for 99 years after failing to repay loans it had taken from Chinese banks to build the port.
China gained control of a strategically located port on a key maritime route in the Indian Ocean, enhancing its influence in the region.
BRICS
BRICS is an acronym for five major emerging economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
These countries are recognized for their significant influence on regional and global affairs, representing a substantial portion of the world’s population, landmass, and economy.
Since the BRICS term was coined in 2001, these countries take up a growing share of the global economy – but this growth hasn’t been without problems
All five countries face long-term problems with economic growth for different reasons
BRICS History
2001: The term "BRIC" was first coined by economist Jim O’Neill in a report for Goldman Sachs, predicting that Brazil, Russia, India, and China would become dominant global economic powers by 2050.
2009: The first official BRIC summit was held in Russia, focusing on strengthening economic ties and coordinating efforts on major global issues like economic reform and climate change.
Political Coordination: BRICS countries work together to advocate for reforms in global governance institutions like the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank to better represent emerging economies
Economic Cooperation by Brics
New Development Bank (NDB): Established in 2014 to finance infrastructure and sustainable development projects in BRICS and other emerging economies. It serves as an alternative to Western-dominated financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund & World Trade Organization
Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA): Created in 2014 to provide financial support during balance of payments crises, reducing reliance on the IMF.
BRICS Versus the U.S. Dollar
The U.S. dollar’s status as the world’s primary reserve currency gives the U.S. significant leverage over global financial flows.
A reserve currency is a foreign currency that is held in large quantities by central banks and other financial institutions as part of their foreign exchange reserves.
It is used for international trade, investments, and as a store of value to back domestic currencies. Countries maintain reserves of this currency to stabilize their own currency, facilitate global trade, and manage financial crises.
BRICS countries have begun to speak out against the dollar system, saying that it benefits the U.S. and U.S. companies while hurting the rest of the world
The BRICS countries advocate for a multipolar world, including in finance. They believe that the current dollar-dominated system favors the U.S. and developed economies at the expense of emerging markets.
They have talked about starting their own BRICS currencies, but there is little evidence that this will actually happen
Foreign Policy of Latin America
Latin American countries are generally split two ways:
Pro-US governments that want American investment to bring jobs, economic growth to their country, i.e. Mexico, Costa Rica
Left-wing governments that see the US as an economic imperialist that has interfered in the region for hundreds of years, i.e. Venezuela, Cuba
China has made efforts to invest in Latin American countries in recent years, particularly in the Lithium Triangle of South America
Developing economies in Latin America may try to build relationships with US & China simultaneously, getting the investment that they can from each without alienating the other
Foreign Policy of Africa
•There are 54 nations in Africa with 1.3 billion people
•18.3% of world population, set to reach 26% by 2050
•Despite this, Africa makes up just ~5% of the world economy
•In addition to wanting to attract foreign direct investment (FDI), many poor African nations also seek aid from the US & other nations
•Pan-Africanism: the idea that African nations should combine their influence and work together to build a prosperous future
•Led to the creation of the African Union in 2001.
•African Union plays a key role in solving regional disputes and representing Africa on the world stage
LECTURE 12
What is Theory
A theory is a way of attempting to explain or understand an aspect of the natural world or social world that can incorporate laws, hypotheses and facts.
Theories can operate at different levels.
They can be grand theories that attempt to describe universal rules of human behavior (for example, the theory that all humans are primarily motivated by economic self-interest)
Grand theories can be used to try to explain a lot of things by arguing that a variety of different things have the same root cause
Other theories are more specific to a time, place, or topic
Theories provide a way of connecting the abstract (the world of concepts/ideas) and the concrete (the empirical/observable world).
They also provide a common language for (educated) individuals to discuss a topic
For example, imagine you have a conference of public policy experts and government officials from Asia, Africa, & Latin America meeting to share strategies for improving public health.
Theories can provide them with the vocabulary to communicate with one another despite different contexts and languages
Actors and Structure in International Relations Theory
In international relations and the field of political science, the word actor is often used. So is the word structure.
The idea of structure & agency plays a big part in shaping the social sciences
Actors refer to individual decision-makers who have their own interests and make choices
Actors are related to the word agency, or the ability to act independently and make decisions
Structures are the impersonal organizations and systems of rules (norms, laws, values) that connect actors to each other and shape what are seen as ‘acceptable’ decisions
Structure & agency provide a way of explaining why individuals & groups do what they do
Structures constrain choices but don’t determine them
Agency is about independence and the ability (or inability) to act
The Social Sciences
The social sciences are the academic & intellectual study of the science of societies & the social world.
They include economics, political science, sociology, anthropology, psychology, geography, and law.
Social scientists aim to study societies and human social relations (in all its forms, including families, tribes, businesses, social clubs, corporations, political parties, secret organizations, etc.) in a scientific manner that is similar to the way we study the natural world
Natural sciences include biology, chemistry, physics, etc.
Political Science
Political science as an academic field of study has only been around for ~150 years, but people have been attempting to study & develop theories about politics since ancient Greece
Political scientists are usually professors with PhDs who spend their time teaching undergraduate students and graduate students taking Masters and PhD degrees
Doing a PhD is essentially writing a book that offers a new argument or new evidence about politics
They also spend their time doing research, where they attempt to publish books or articles where they develop a new theory or attempt to demonstrate some new empirical evidence
Main International Relations Theories
The three main IR theories are:
Realism
Liberalism / Internationalism
Constructivism
Realism and internationalism are often contrasted against each other, with realism representing the idea that states are ultimately self-interested actors and internationalism representing the idea that we can overcome this self-interest to act in the collective interest
Realism
“Realism, also known as political realism, is a view of international politics that stresses its competitive and conflictual side. It is usually contrasted with idealism or liberalism, which tends to emphasize cooperation.
Realists consider the principal actors in the international arena to be states, which are concerned with:
their own security,
act in pursuit of their own national interests,
and struggle for power.”
Realism says that states are primarily concerned with their own survival & the accumulation of power and that they use internationalist ideas & language as a tool to pursue power
Realists would say that the US supports the UN and other international organizations as a way to support and protect US power, rather than something the US does to make the world a better place
Liberalism
Liberalism or liberal internationalism is the theory that humans have enough reason to realize that the realist perspective on politics is limited and that human cooperation (instead of conflict) can benefit all
Internationalism
Internationalism sees realism as tending toward war & conflict, while we can instead use our powers of reason & mutual understanding to resolve conflicts peacefully
Key ideas: democracy & free market capitalism promote values that bring us together through trade, diplomacy, international organizations and discourage countries from using war to achieve their goals
Constructivism
The realism-internationalism binary is useful for thinking about international relations. But it’s also limiting.
Constructivism is focused on the idea that international relations is also shaped by specific socially-constructed ideas and ideologies.
In particular, it’s concerned with the role of ideas that shape public opinion and guide the actions of leaders.
Nationalism and other ideologies are shaped by cultural norms and values in addition to the self-interest of the nation.
This can take different forms in different national contexts.
Constructivism isn’t itself a major theory that tries to explain everything.
It is focused on providing a corrective to the dominant intellectual paradigm in order to focus on a neglected part of the field.
LECTURE 13
Evolution of Liberalism
The term liberalism has evolved over hundreds of years.
Today, liberalism refers to a center-left or progressive political ideology associated with the Democratic Party.
But in different countries, it means different things.
In Europe, ‘liberal’ refers to a center-right political ideology that supports free markets and is opposed to more government intervention in the economy.
Classical Liberalism
Classical liberalism emphasizes the importance of individual freedom, private property, free markets, and limited government intervention.
In the context of IR, it stresses that states, like individuals, have natural rights and should coexist peacefully through mutual respect for sovereignty. This tradition laid the foundation for liberal thinking in global politics, focusing on individual freedoms and the rule of law.
Today, some people call themselves ‘classical liberals’ to say that they support free markets and individual rights.
New Deal Liberalism
In the early 1930s, the US was suffering from the Great Depression
1932: Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) was elected on the promise that he would restore the American economy
FDR’s major economic policy program was the New Deal, a set of ideas for government intervention in the economy to restart economic growth
New Deal Liberalism is the idea that government can and should intervene in the economy – particularly during a crisis – and that government can stimulate industry through investment & planning
Neoliberalism
The term neoliberal has been used to describe a backlash against New Deal Liberalism and ‘big government’ ideologies of socialism / communism in the 20th century (1900s)
Neoliberalism is a return to the free market liberalism of the past, but in the context of 20th century politics
In the US, neoliberals were interested in cutting government spending.
Around the world, neoliberals were more concerned with privatizing national industries and introducing pro-market and pro-corporate policies into states that had heavy govt intervention
Progressive Liberalism
Today, liberalism is associated with the ideas and policies of the Democratic Party
Democratic Party is a big tent party that contains liberals, moderates, and progressives.
Progressive liberalism is concerned with reducing economic inequality, increasing equality of opportunity, and ending discrimination based on race, gender, religion, sexual orientation
Equality of opportunity - the idea that all people should have an equal chance to access resources and opportunities
Great Powers Theory
Great powers are states that are recognized as having the ability to exert its influence on a global scale.
Great Powers Theory is an approach to IR that focuses on the role and behavior of the most powerful states in the international system.
These states possess significant political, military, and economic influence, and they play a dominant role in shaping global events, conflicts, and diplomacy.
The theory highlights the centrality of great powers in maintaining or disrupting global stability.
Democratic Peace Theory
The central claim of Democratic Peace Theory is that democratic states are extremely unlikely to go to war with other democracies.
This idea stems from observations of historical patterns, where conflicts between democratic states are rare compared to conflicts between democracies and non-democracies or between autocratic regimes.
Democracies share norms like: respect for individual rights, non-violent conflict resolution, and political accountability.
Why Don’t Democracies Fight Each Other?
Democratic political systems impose constraints on leaders, making it more difficult for them to engage in war without broad support. Democracies typically require:
Public support for military action: Citizens in democratic countries, who bear the cost of war, are more likely to oppose it unless they perceive it as absolutely necessary.
Legislative approval: In many democracies, leaders must gain the approval of a parliament or other legislative body before going to war.
Free media and open debate: In democratic systems, free press and open discussions allow for greater scrutiny of government decisions, including the potential consequences of military action.
Limitations of Democratic Peace Theory
Up to 30% of IR scholars disagree with Democratic Peace Theory
Why? It seems obvious that there are less wars as the world has democratized.
Because: other factors confuse the analysis. It’s not just that these countries are democracies:
Many were allies in Cold War
Many are also capitalist countries (and maybe this is why they don’t fight)
Some democracies use covert action (spying, funding political parties abroad) that doesn’t look like war but represents interference in other democracies
Democracy isn’t well defined – there are different kinds of democracies
Grand Strategy in International Relations
Grand Strategy: A nation's highest level of planning and decision-making in pursuit of long-term, fundamental national objectives.
Key Elements:
National interests
Threats and opportunities
Resource allocation
Diplomatic, economic, and military tools
Examples in History:
U.S. Containment Policy during Cold War
China's Belt and Road Initiative
British Balance of Power in 19th century
Grand Strategy in Action
Containment was the core U.S. grand strategy during the Cold War (1947-1991), aimed at preventing the spread of communism and limiting Soviet influence globally.
Key Objectives
Prevent Soviet expansion
Strengthen democratic allies
Undermine communist ideology
Avoid direct military confrontation
Implementation Tools
Military alliances (e.g., NATO)
Economic aid (Marshall Plan)
Propaganda (Radio Free Europe)
Proxy wars (Korea, Vietnam)
Arms race and nuclear deterrence
Grand Strategy Elements in Containment
Long-term vision: Outlasted multiple administrations (Truman to Bush Sr.)
Multifaceted approach: Combined diplomatic, economic, military, and ideological tools
Resource allocation: Massive investment in defense and foreign aid
Adaptability: Evolved from George Kennan's original concept to various forms (e.g., flexible response)
Coherent framework: Provided a clear lens for interpreting global events and guiding policy decisions
Dependency Theory
Dependency theory argues that the international system is structured largely by economic forces.
The current global economic system is designed so that low-income developing nations become economically dependent on (and are exploited by) rich developed economies
Argues that system of exploitation (with core and periphery countries) dates back to colonial times and that this system has just evolved to a point where multi-national corporations are exploiting low-income countries and preventing them from developing independently
Decolonization and Postcolonial Theory
Decolonization is the process by which former colonies achieved their independence – much of this happened around 1945, when WWII ended
Postcolonial theory is a theory of the cultural, political and economic consequences of colonialism and imperialism.
Postcolonial approaches to IR emphasize the long-term economic and psychological effects of colonialism on colonized peoples and countries
LECTURE 14
The Global Economy
To understand international relations between states, we must also understand the economic relationship between states
The multinational corporation is the key actor in the global economy
Multinational corporation: a company whose operations and/or headquarters are based in multiple countries
Why Multinational?
Major American and European companies operate around the world, but in most countries the companies just focus on their own market
American companies are the biggest in the world, and they go abroad to find (a) new customers, (b) new (cheaper) employees, and (c ) new materials or resources
The nature of the economy is that growth always needs to come from somewhere – once the domestic market is tapped out, look abroad
Why do Companies Exist?
Companies exist to organize money (capital) and invest it for a return.
They live to seek profits, i.e. returns on investment.
Companies or corporations were created as a way of limiting the liability of individuals investing.
Companies will only invest in an area if they think they generate a profit from it in the short-term or long-term
This explains why many companies don’t invest in low-income countries – they don’t think they can make money there
Liability and Corporations
Historically, business owners faced unlimited liability, meaning they were personally responsible for all the debts and obligations of the business. If the company failed or incurred large debts, the owners could lose personal assets like homes or savings to cover those liabilities.
This discouraged investment and limited the growth of businesses.
The introduction of limited liability in the 19th century was a transformative moment in the history of companies. Under limited liability, shareholders are only responsible for the amount they have invested in the company and are not personally liable for the company’s debts beyond that.
This innovation allowed investors to participate in business ventures without risking their personal fortunes, making it much safer to pool capital for large-scale projects.
Q&A
1) Explain the two main theories of international relations and how they relate to each other.
Realism and internationalism are two major theories in international relations that offer contrasting perspectives on how states interact in the global arena. Realism, also known as political realism, views international politics as inherently competitive and conflict-driven. It assumes that states are the primary actors and are motivated by self-interest, with survival and the accumulation of power being their primary goals. Realists believe that, because the international system is anarchic—lacking a central authority—states must rely on their own military and economic capabilities to ensure security. In this framework, cooperation between states is rare and usually temporary, often driven by the need to balance against a common threat or achieve short-term gains.
In contrast, internationalism, often referred to as liberal internationalism, emphasizes cooperation and collective action among states. This theory argues that through diplomacy, international organizations, and mutual agreements, states can create a stable and peaceful international order. It advocates that democracies and free markets encourage interdependence, making conflict less likely because of the shared benefits of cooperation. Internationalism asserts that human reason and shared values can overcome self-interest, allowing states to work together on global issues such as climate change, human rights, and economic development.
Although the two theories are often seen as opposites, they share an underlying concern with how states manage their interactions to ensure survival and prosperity. Realism focuses on the limits of cooperation, arguing that states will act in self-interest even within international frameworks. Internationalism, on the other hand, suggests that states can transcend these self-interests for the greater good through institutions and diplomacy. Together, these theories help explain the tension between conflict and cooperation in global politics, with realism highlighting the obstacles to cooperation and internationalism emphasizing the potential benefits.
2) Explain the concept of "soft power" in international relations. How has it been used effectively by nations in the 20th century, and what are its limitations?
Soft power in international relations refers to a nation's ability to influence others through appeal and attraction rather than coercion or force. It is often contrasted with hard power, which relies on military or economic pressure to achieve foreign policy goals. Soft power is about shaping preferences and opinions by promoting cultural values, political ideals, or fostering positive relationships through diplomacy, education, media, and cultural exchanges. A nation's soft power is rooted in its ability to make others want what it wants by being an attractive example, making diplomacy, values, and culture crucial tools of influence.
During the 20th century, soft power was effectively used by nations such as the United States and Japan. The United States leveraged its cultural soft power during the Cold War by exporting American values through Hollywood films, music, and television, which portrayed the U.S. as a beacon of freedom, democracy, and economic prosperity. This cultural diplomacy helped the U.S. gain influence in Europe and beyond, countering Soviet communism without direct confrontation. Japan, following its defeat in World War II, successfully rebuilt its international image by promoting its technology, culture, and peaceful governance through soft power initiatives. The spread of Japanese products like electronics and automobiles, along with its cultural exports in the form of anime and cuisine, helped Japan re-establish itself as a positive global player.
Despite its advantages, soft power has limitations. It is inherently indirect and often takes time to yield results, making it less reliable in crises that require immediate action. Additionally, a nation's soft power can be undermined by inconsistent behavior or policies that contradict its projected image. For example, while the U.S. championed democracy globally, controversial military interventions in Vietnam and Iraq damaged its soft power credibility. Another example is China's Belt and Road Initiative, which has aimed to build soft power through infrastructure projects, but accusations of debt-trap diplomacy have raised skepticism about China's true intentions, limiting the effectiveness of its efforts to gain goodwill.
3) Discuss the role of international organizations in maintaining global peace and security.
International organizations play a critical role in maintaining global peace and security by providing platforms for diplomacy, facilitating cooperation, and promoting collective action to resolve conflicts. These organizations, such as the United Nations (UN) and regional bodies like the European Union (EU), serve as forums where states can negotiate, address security concerns, and work together on global challenges. Through peacekeeping missions, conflict resolution initiatives, and humanitarian efforts, international organizations help to prevent the escalation of conflicts, stabilize war-torn regions, and uphold international law. Their presence and legitimacy help states manage disputes peacefully, preventing the need for military interventions or unilateral actions.
One prominent example of an international organization maintaining global peace is the UN's role in peacekeeping operations. After World War II, the UN was established with the primary goal of preventing another global conflict. Over the decades, the UN has deployed peacekeeping forces to conflict zones to maintain ceasefires, protect civilians, and oversee the implementation of peace agreements. In cases like Rwanda (1994), the UN's efforts to prevent further violence were constrained, but in other regions such as the Balkans (1990s), UN-led peacekeeping missions helped stabilize war-torn countries and facilitate negotiations that ended violence.
Another important example is the European Union’s role in preventing conflict in Europe. After centuries of wars culminating in the devastation of World War II, European nations came together to create institutions that would foster economic cooperation and integration, reducing the likelihood of future conflicts. By creating a common market, political dialogue, and shared institutions, the EU played a pivotal role in stabilizing Europe, transforming it from a continent marked by frequent wars to one of the most peaceful and cooperative regions in the world. The EU's expansion to include former Eastern Bloc countries after the Cold War further solidified peace in Europe by integrating these nations into the broader European economic and political framework.
4) Analyze the concept of "democratic peace theory” and the evidence for or against it.
Democratic peace theory is the idea that democracies are less likely to go to war with each other compared to other forms of government. The theory posits that democratic nations, sharing common values such as respect for individual rights, non-violent conflict resolution, and political accountability, are more inclined to resolve their disputes through diplomacy rather than military action. Supporters of the theory highlight that, over the past 100 years, as the number of democracies has grown, the world has seen a decline in large-scale conflicts between democratic nations. The post-World War II era, for example, witnessed fewer wars between democracies, suggesting that democratic governance fosters peace and stability.
Evidence supporting democratic peace theory can be seen in the peaceful relationships between democracies in North America and Europe. For instance, the European Union has united numerous democracies in a web of political and economic interdependence, significantly reducing the risk of conflict in a region that was once prone to war. Similarly, the United States and Canada—two neighboring democracies—have maintained peaceful relations for over a century, despite sharing a large border and complex historical ties. Advocates argue that this pattern shows the strength of democratic institutions in fostering dialogue and cooperation, contributing to a more peaceful global order.
However, critics of democratic peace theory point out several weaknesses. One major limitation is that the time period since the rise of widespread democracy is relatively short, making it difficult to draw definitive conclusions. Over the last 100 years, international systems have also evolved due to factors such as capitalism and global trade, which may be just as important in maintaining peace as democracy. The economic interdependence created by free markets and trade networks may discourage war more effectively than shared political systems, as states are reluctant to disrupt profitable economic relationships. Additionally, some critics argue that democracies are still willing to engage in covert actions or proxy wars, complicating the notion that they inherently avoid conflict. Therefore, while democratic peace theory offers valuable insights, it may not fully explain the broader dynamics of peace in the modern world.
5) Analyze the concept of "grand strategy" in international relations. Choose a major power and evaluate its grand strategy during or after the Cold War era, discussing both successes and failures.
Grand strategy in international relations refers to a nation's comprehensive plan for achieving its long-term goals and securing its national interests by using a combination of diplomatic, military, and economic tools. It encompasses how a state allocates its resources, manages relationships with other powers, and responds to threats and opportunities in the international system. A well-defined grand strategy provides a framework that guides a country's foreign policy decisions, often enduring through changes in government. During the Cold War, the United States developed and implemented a grand strategy aimed at containing the spread of communism, primarily in response to the geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union.
The United States' Cold War grand strategy was shaped by the policy of containment, first outlined by diplomat George Kennan in the late 1940s. The core objective was to limit Soviet influence and prevent the expansion of communism globally. This strategy relied on forming alliances, such as the creation of NATO, and supporting friendly governments economically and militarily. The Marshall Plan, which provided economic aid to rebuild war-torn Europe, and the use of proxy wars in places like Korea and Vietnam were key components. These efforts helped the U.S. maintain a global network of alliances and counter Soviet influence without resorting to direct military confrontation, making containment a success in avoiding nuclear conflict and ultimately outlasting the Soviet Union.
However, the U.S. grand strategy during the Cold War also had significant failures and costs. The Vietnam War, a direct result of the containment strategy, was a major military and political failure, leading to widespread domestic unrest and weakening America's global standing. Additionally, the focus on military alliances and arms buildup contributed to an arms race, which strained both superpowers economically and fueled tensions that often brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. Despite these shortcomings, the U.S. Cold War grand strategy is generally seen as successful in its primary objective: the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in 1991, which left the U.S. as the world's dominant superpower.
6) Examine the long-term impact of the Treaty of Versailles on international relations in the early 20th century. How did it contribute to the outbreak of World War II?
The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, marked the official end of World War I and aimed to establish lasting peace in Europe by addressing the political and territorial issues that had fueled the conflict. The treaty imposed severe penalties on Germany, including substantial territorial losses, heavy reparations payments, and the infamous "war guilt clause," which placed full responsibility for the war on Germany. The treaty sought to weaken Germany militarily and economically, while also redrawing borders in Europe and establishing the League of Nations to prevent future conflicts. However, while the treaty aimed to promote stability, its harsh terms sowed resentment and unrest in Germany, laying the groundwork for future tensions.
One of the most significant long-term impacts of the Treaty of Versailles on international relations was its role in destabilizing Germany and fostering the conditions that led to World War II. The economic burden imposed by reparations crippled the German economy, leading to hyperinflation, unemployment, and widespread poverty in the 1920s. This economic instability, coupled with the national humiliation felt by many Germans due to the treaty’s punitive terms, created fertile ground for the rise of nationalism and extremist ideologies. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party capitalized on these sentiments, using the treaty as a rallying point to galvanize support by promising to restore Germany’s power and reverse the perceived injustices of Versailles.
Additionally, the failure of the League of Nations—established by the treaty to maintain peace—further contributed to the breakdown of international order. The League lacked the authority and military backing to enforce its resolutions, especially without the participation of key powers like the United States. As a result, aggressive actions by Germany, Italy, and Japan in the 1930s went unchecked, emboldening these nations to pursue territorial expansion. The Treaty of Versailles, rather than ensuring peace, became a central factor in the resurgence of militarism and the outbreak of World War II in 1939, highlighting its long-term consequences for global stability and international relations.
7) Explain the idea of internationalism. How has it become more important in international relations over the past 100 years? Provide examples.
Internationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the importance of cooperation and collaboration among nations to achieve common goals and address global issues. It is rooted in the belief that states are interconnected, and their actions can have far-reaching effects beyond their borders. Internationalism advocates for resolving conflicts through diplomacy and multilateral organizations rather than through unilateral action or military force. This ideology is often associated with the promotion of international organizations, global governance, and collective security efforts, with the goal of fostering peace, stability, and prosperity worldwide.
Over the past 100 years, internationalism has become increasingly central to international relations as the world has become more interdependent, particularly due to globalization. The devastating consequences of World War I and World War II led to a shift in thinking, where global cooperation was seen as essential to preventing future conflicts. This shift resulted in the establishment of international institutions like the United Nations (UN) in 1945, which embodies internationalism by promoting peace, human rights, and development on a global scale. The creation of organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) further reflected the growing recognition that economic cooperation is crucial for global stability and prosperity.
Two key examples illustrate the growing importance of internationalism in modern international relations. First, the European Union (EU), formed in the post-World War II era, exemplifies how internationalism has fostered peace and economic cooperation among former adversaries. The EU has helped integrate European nations, reducing the likelihood of conflict through shared institutions, trade, and political collaboration. Second, internationalism played a vital role in addressing global challenges like climate change. The Paris Agreement of 2015, a legally binding international treaty on climate change, demonstrated the necessity of collective action to tackle environmental crises, as individual states alone cannot solve a problem as vast as global warming. These examples show that internationalism has been instrumental in shaping a more cooperative and interconnected world over the past century.
8) Explain the concept of constructivism. Provide an example of a constructivist explanation or analysis of an event or trend in international relations.
Constructivism is a theory in international relations that emphasizes the role of ideas, norms, and identities in shaping state behavior and the international system. Unlike realism or liberalism, which focus on material factors such as military power or economic interests, constructivism argues that the international environment is socially constructed through shared beliefs, cultural practices, and historical experiences. It posits that state actions are not only driven by self-interest but are also influenced by norms, values, and the identities they develop in relation to other states. For constructivists, the international system is dynamic and shaped by the interactions between states, where collective beliefs and ideologies evolve over time.
A constructivist explanation of international relations might focus on how the identities and perceptions of states shape their foreign policies. For instance, the end of the Cold War can be analyzed through a constructivist lens. While realism would attribute the collapse of the Soviet Union to material factors such as economic decline and military overextension, constructivism emphasizes the role of changing ideas and values. The Soviet leadership under Mikhail Gorbachev embraced new concepts such as glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), which reflected a shift away from the rigid communist ideology of the past. These changes in Soviet identity, coupled with the promotion of democratic ideals by the West, led to a transformation in the relationship between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, ultimately contributing to the peaceful conclusion of the Cold War.
Another example of constructivism in action is the rise of human rights norms in global politics. While human rights were once seen as secondary to state sovereignty and security, over the past few decades, they have become a central concern in international relations due to the increasing influence of non-state actors, international organizations, and advocacy groups. The establishment of institutions like the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 highlight how ideas about human dignity and justice have reshaped global expectations about state behavior. Constructivism explains this shift by focusing on how these norms were gradually constructed and internalized by states and the international community, influencing how they perceive their responsibilities towards their citizens and others.
9) Analyze the impact of regional integration projects (such as the European Union) on the international system. How do these organizations challenge or reinforce the state-centric model of global politics?
Regional integration projects, such as the European Union (EU), have significantly impacted the international system by promoting cooperation among states, creating new political and economic structures that transcend traditional national boundaries. These organizations enable member states to pool their sovereignty in key areas like trade, monetary policy, and foreign affairs, facilitating more efficient governance and collective decision-making. For instance, the EU’s single market and shared currency, the euro, have unified the economies of many European nations, allowing them to compete more effectively on the global stage. Such integration also fosters regional stability, as countries are less likely to engage in conflict with one another when they are economically and politically interdependent.
These regional organizations challenge the traditional state-centric model of global politics by shifting power and authority away from individual nation-states towards supranational institutions. In the case of the EU, institutions like the European Commission, the European Parliament, and the European Court of Justice have authority over certain policy areas that were once the exclusive domain of national governments. This shared sovereignty dilutes the notion that the state is the sole actor in international relations and introduces a multi-level governance model, where decision-making is distributed across national, regional, and global levels. This trend undermines the realist perspective of international relations, which views the international system as fundamentally anarchic, with states as the only actors that matter.
Moreover, regional integration organizations like the EU have implications for global governance, as they often serve as influential actors in multilateral organizations such as the United Nations or the World Trade Organization. They advocate for collective action on issues like climate change, human rights, and international trade, often leading efforts that surpass the capacity of individual states. As a result, regional organizations not only challenge the state-centric model but also introduce a new paradigm in international relations, where cooperation and shared governance play an increasingly important role in shaping global outcomes. The success of the EU has also inspired similar efforts in other regions, such as ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) and MERCOSUR in South America, further reshaping the international political landscape.
10) Discuss the rise of empires throughout history. What are some examples of historical empires, and why did they rise and fall?
An empire is a large political entity in which a central authority exercises control over vast territories and diverse peoples, often through conquest and colonization. Empires are typically characterized by a dominant core region that extends its influence over peripheral areas, imposing its political, economic, and cultural systems. Throughout history, empires have risen to power due to their military superiority, effective governance, and economic or technological advantages. However, these advantages often erode over time as rival states adapt, leading to the eventual decline and fall of empires. Two of the most prominent historical empires are the Roman Empire and the British Empire, both of which exemplify the cyclical nature of imperial rise and fall.
The Roman Empire, which began as a republic before transitioning into imperial rule in 27 BCE, rose to dominance through its well-organized military, strategic geographic location, and efficient governance. The empire expanded across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, integrating diverse cultures and establishing a vast network of roads, cities, and trade routes. Rome’s legal system and administrative infrastructure allowed it to maintain control over its vast territories for centuries. However, the Roman Empire eventually declined due to internal political instability, economic strain, and external pressures from invading "barbarian" tribes. As other nations and groups, such as the Germanic tribes, grew stronger and adapted to Rome's military strategies, the empire's initial advantages were eroded, leading to its fall in 476 CE.
The British Empire, at its height in the 19th and early 20th centuries, became the largest empire in history, fueled by its naval supremacy, industrial strength, and the wealth generated through global trade. Britain’s ability to control key maritime routes and its colonies across Africa, Asia, and the Americas gave it unparalleled economic and political power. However, the rise of nationalism, the costs of maintaining a global empire, and the growing power of other nations, such as the United States and Germany, contributed to its decline. Following World War II, decolonization movements swept across the British colonies, as these territories sought independence. The British Empire, once the dominant global power, found that its initial advantage had diminished as other nations caught up economically, militarily, and politically, leading to its gradual dissolution.
11) Explain who Thucydides was and why he was important.
Thucydides was an ancient Greek historian and general, best known for his work The History of the Peloponnesian War, which chronicled the conflict between Athens and Sparta in the late 5th century BCE. Born around 460 BCE in Athens, Thucydides lived during a time of great political upheaval and warfare in the Greek world. He served as a general for Athens during the Peloponnesian War but was exiled after a military failure. During his exile, he devoted himself to documenting the events of the war, offering a detailed, empirical account of the strategies, battles, and political dynamics between the warring city-states. His work is considered one of the earliest examples of historical writing that aims to provide a factual and analytical narrative, focusing not only on events but also on the underlying causes of war.
Thucydides is particularly significant for his contribution to the field of international relations, as he is widely regarded as the first realist thinker. Realism, a theory that emphasizes the self-interest and power struggles of states, can be traced back to Thucydides’ analysis of the Peloponnesian War. In his writings, he argued that states act primarily out of fear, honor, and self-interest, a perspective that contrasts with the more idealistic views of human nature and politics. Thucydides famously illustrated this in the Melian Dialogue, where the Athenians justify their subjugation of the neutral island of Melos by stating, "the strong do what they can, and the weak suffer what they must." This stark portrayal of power politics laid the foundation for later realist thought, which views international relations as an anarchic struggle for power where moral considerations are secondary.
The Peloponnesian War, which lasted from 431 to 404 BCE, provided the backdrop for Thucydides' realist interpretation of international relations. The conflict, fought between the democratic Athens and the oligarchic Sparta, highlighted the inevitable clash of interests between powerful states. Thucydides’ analysis of the war went beyond mere descriptions of battles; he examined the deeper motivations of states, such as the pursuit of power, security, and survival. His work remains influential today, not only as a historical account but also as a foundational text in political theory, particularly in the study of realism. Thucydides' insights into the nature of power and conflict continue to resonate with scholars and practitioners of international relations, making him a central figure in the field.
12) Analyze the role of the Cold War in shaping international relations from 1945 to 1991. Explain what bipolarity is and how it affected global politics and economics during the Cold War.
The Cold War played a pivotal role in shaping international relations from 1945 to 1991, as it defined a global struggle between two superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union. The conflict was characterized by ideological differences, with the U.S. representing democratic capitalism and the Soviet Union advocating for communism. Both nations sought to expand their influence globally, resulting in a world divided along ideological lines. This period saw the rise of significant policies such as the U.S.’s Marshall Plan, aimed at rebuilding Europe and preventing the spread of communism, and the Warsaw Pact, which solidified Soviet influence over Eastern Europe. The Cold War led to proxy wars, nuclear arms races, and an overarching sense of tension and competition that shaped diplomatic relations and military strategies for decades. Countries across the globe aligned themselves with either the U.S. or the USSR, which had profound effects on international alliances and regional conflicts.
A defining feature of the Cold War was the concept of bipolarity, meaning the international system was dominated by two major powers competing for global dominance. In a bipolar world, alliances were critical, as seen in the formation of NATO, a U.S.-led collective defense alliance, and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. This division of the world into two spheres created clear lines of allegiance, affecting global politics as countries were pressured to choose sides. Bipolarity also reduced the influence of smaller states, as the superpowers frequently used them as pawns in their ideological struggle, fighting proxy wars in places like Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan without directly confronting one another. The constant threat of nuclear war, combined with diplomatic strategies like deterrence and mutually assured destruction (MAD), prevented direct conflict between the superpowers but ensured that their global rivalry shaped international affairs at every level.
The economic impact of the Cold War was equally profound. Both the U.S. and the Soviet Union invested heavily in their military-industrial complexes, leading to an arms race and enormous expenditures on defense. The U.S. utilized its economic power through foreign aid and financial support for allies, while the Soviet Union tried to create self-sufficient socialist economies within its sphere of influence. The global economy during this period became highly polarized, with capitalist economies aligned with the U.S. flourishing, especially through initiatives like the Marshall Plan, while the communist bloc struggled with inefficiencies and stagnation. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of bipolarity, transitioning the world from a Cold War structure into a more multipolar or unipolar global order led by the U.S.
13) Explain what it means for countries to implement foreign policy in a “multi-pronged” way. Provide examples of how different aspects of foreign policy can complement – or contradict – each other.
Foreign policy refers to the strategies and actions a country adopts to achieve its external goals and protect its national interests in relation to other nations and international entities. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including diplomacy, military action, economic relations, and cultural exchange, to navigate the complex global environment. Foreign policy is distinct from domestic policy, which focuses on issues within a country’s borders, such as healthcare and infrastructure, whereas foreign policy is primarily concerned with interactions beyond those borders. Every nation’s foreign policy is designed to promote its national interest, which typically includes security, economic prosperity, and the protection of its values and citizens abroad.
When countries implement foreign policy in a multi-pronged way, they use multiple tools and strategies simultaneously to address their international goals. This approach recognizes that foreign relations are multifaceted, requiring not just one but a combination of actions across various domains—diplomatic, economic, military, and cultural—to be effective. For instance, the United States often uses diplomacy, public diplomacy, and military presence together to reinforce its global influence. By engaging in diplomacy through negotiations and treaties, a country can foster positive relations with other states, while also using economic sanctions or military deterrence to signal its strength or disapproval, thereby ensuring its interests are protected from multiple angles.
Two examples demonstrate how different aspects of foreign policy complement each other. First, during the Cold War, the U.S. combined economic aid with military alliances to contain Soviet influence. The Marshall Plan provided financial assistance to rebuild Europe, strengthening allies economically, while NATO provided a military defense against Soviet aggression. This multi-pronged approach solidified the U.S. presence in Europe by bolstering both economic stability and military security. Second, China's Belt and Road Initiative uses infrastructure investment (economic policy) to enhance its geopolitical influence (diplomatic policy). By investing in ports, roads, and railways across Asia, Africa, and Europe, China expands its economic reach while simultaneously gaining diplomatic leverage and access to strategic assets, demonstrating how foreign policy goals are achieved through coordinated economic and political efforts.
14) Explain why theory is important for international relations. Provide examples of how theories can help us to explain or understand political developments.
Theory is essential in international relations because it provides a framework for understanding the complexities of global politics and helps explain why states and actors behave the way they do. By offering explanations for patterns in state behavior, theories give us a structured way of thinking about international relations and predicting potential outcomes. Without theory, the world of international relations would appear chaotic and unpredictable, but theories like realism, liberalism, and constructivism offer lenses through which we can analyze international events, recognize patterns, and identify underlying causes. For instance, realism helps explain why states prioritize power and security in an anarchic international system, while liberalism suggests that cooperation through institutions can lead to peace and mutual benefit.
Theories are also invaluable for explaining the "why" behind political developments. Realism, for example, explains the Cold War by pointing to the competition for power and security between the United States and the Soviet Union, with both superpowers acting out of self-interest to expand their influence and ensure their survival. This theory helps us understand why the two states did not cooperate even after defeating a common enemy in World War II—because their core interest was maintaining power in a system where no overarching authority existed to regulate their rivalry. On the other hand, liberalism explains the formation of institutions like the United Nations and World Trade Organization by arguing that states can find mutual benefit through cooperation, shared values, and rule-based systems. These institutions promote peace and economic stability by providing states with forums to resolve disputes without resorting to war.
Furthermore, theory helps us see patterns within history, allowing us to connect past events to current and future political developments. Democratic Peace Theory, for instance, posits that democracies are unlikely to go to war with one another, which is evident from historical patterns where democratic states have rarely engaged in direct conflict. This theory not only explains the past but also helps us anticipate the behavior of democratic states in the future, predicting that as more countries become democratic, the likelihood of conflict between them decreases. In this way, theory provides a way to navigate the complex web of international politics by identifying recurring trends and offering explanations for why those patterns exist.
15) Explain what nationalism is. Provide examples of nationalism shaping developments in international politics & history.
Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, and allegiance to one’s nation, often prioritizing national interests over global or external ones. Nationalism can manifest in various forms, including cultural, political, and ethnic nationalism, each of which shapes the identity and actions of a nation-state. Cultural nationalism seeks to preserve and promote the unique culture, language, and traditions of a nation, while political nationalism focuses on achieving or maintaining sovereignty and self-governance, often advocating for independence from foreign powers. Additionally, ethnic nationalism defines a nation in terms of a shared ethnicity or heritage, sometimes excluding those outside the ethnic group. Across its forms, nationalism fosters a sense of unity and collective identity, which can drive significant political and social movements.
Throughout history, nationalism has played a key role in shaping international politics. One prominent example is the unification of Germany in the 19th century. Fueled by a sense of shared German ethnicity and culture, the German states, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, sought to consolidate into a single, powerful nation-state. This surge of nationalist sentiment led to the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), which ultimately unified Germany and transformed it into a major European power. The unification of Germany not only altered the balance of power in Europe but also contributed to rising tensions among European states, which would later be a factor in the lead-up to World War I.
A more recent example of nationalism shaping international politics is the rise of Brexit in the United Kingdom. Nationalist sentiments, particularly concerns about sovereignty and immigration, were central to the 2016 referendum in which a majority of British voters chose to leave the European Union. Many supporters of Brexit argued that the UK should have greater control over its laws, borders, and economy, free from what they saw as overreach by EU institutions. This nationalist movement reshaped Britain’s relationship with Europe, marking a significant shift in international relations and economic policy. Both the unification of Germany and Brexit demonstrate how nationalism can profoundly influence the political landscape, driving states to reassert their sovereignty and redefine their position in the global order.