Chapter 13: The Age of Nationalism, 1850-1914

Lesson 13.1: What were the main features of the authoritarian nation-state built by Napoleon III?

early nationalism → liberal, idealistic, democratic, radical, but also found in authoritarian states

France’s Second Republic

louis napoleon never participated in politics but won ez bc universal male suffrage

1) romantics love his name 2) middle class feared socialist challenge and revolt and chaos of revolution of 1848, wanted tough rule to provide stability and protect property 3) louis napoleon advertised positive socioeconomic pamphlets before election

vision of unity and authoritarian democracy

promoted national unity and social progress over individual interests
argued only a strong leader like napoleon i could defeat elite corruption
proposed rule by plebiscites and direct democracy to legitimize authority

constitutional presidency and political compromise 1848

elected president in 1848 by overwhelming majority
shared power with conservative national assembly
approved church influence in education and restricted suffrage to gain support

coup d’état and establishment of the second empire 1851–1852

staged coup d’état on december 2 1851 with army backing
crushed resistance and restored universal male suffrage
plebiscites in 1851 and 1852 created the second french empire and made him emperor

Napoleon’s III Second Empire

economic growth and modernization 1852–1860s

promoted investment banks railroads and public works including paris rebuilding
industrial expansion raised business profits wages and reduced unemployment
economic success strengthened support for the second empire

worker support and social reforms 1850s–1860s

early prosperity reduced social and political tensions
workers backed regime due to housing credit and pawnshop reforms
unions and right to strike legalized in the 1860s

foreign policy and nationalism 1850s–1860s

pursued principle of nationalities through aggressive diplomacy
fought crimean war and war against austria in 1859 for italian unification
failed intervention in mexico during u.s. civil war damaged reputation

authoritarian rule and managed elections 1850s–early 1860s

emperor appointed ministers and dominated political power
retained assembly and senate with limited authority
used patronage and pressure to ensure pro-government election victories in 1857 and 1863

liberalization and constitutional change 1860s–1870

growing liberal opposition weakened authoritarian system
expanded press freedom and legislative power leading to opposition gains in 1869
new constitution approved by plebiscite in 1870 shortly before fall from power

Lesson 13.2: How were strong nation-states forged in Italy and Germany?

authoritarian nationalism and state building 1850s–1860s

napoleon iii provided a conservative model backed by middle and working classes
europe debated whether nationalism plus authoritarianism could work elsewhere
italy germany and the u.s. showed war and violence forged strong central states

The Unification of Italy
italy divided after congress of vienna 1815

peninsula split into many states dominated by great powers
lombardy and venetia placed under austrian control
metternich dismissed italy as only a geographical expression

risorgimento: The nineteenth-century struggle for Italian independence and unification

italian unification inspired widespread nationalist sentiment
giuseppe mazzini founded young italy calling for republic and suffrage
emphasized language tradition and liberation from foreign rule

papacy and opposition to unification

catholicism offered shared identity but resisted nationalism
pope pius ix opposed unification after 1848 revolutions
syllabus of errors 1864 condemned liberal and modern ideas

piedmont as leader of italian unification 1850s

nationalists backed victor emmanuel ii of sardinia piedmont
state was wealthy industrialized and relatively liberal
constitution of 1849 blended monarchy with limited parliamentary rule

cavour and limited unification goals

count cavour served as prime minister from 1852 to 1861
pursued pragmatic and gradual unification strategy
initially focused on northern and central italy

modernization and alliance with france

cavour expanded railroads civil liberties and reduced church power
reforms increased piedmont’s leadership appeal
secret alliance with napoleon iii formed in july 1858

war with austria and setback 1859

cavour provoked austria into war with piedmont
victories at magenta and solferino weakened austrian control
france withdrew support and only lombardy was gained

popular revolts and northern unification 1860

nationalist uprisings toppled rulers in central italy
cavour traded savoy and nice for french support
plebiscites united north and central italy under victor emmanuel

garibaldi and limits of unification

garibaldi emerged as revolutionary nationalist leader in 1860
kingdom expanded to venice in 1866 and rome in 1870
italy remained unequal with limited suffrage and regional divisions

The Austro-Prussian War

german political stalemate after 1848

austria and russia blocked prussian unification attempt in 1850
rivalry grew between austria and prussia
both sought dominance of the german confederation

economic rivalry and the zollverein 1834–1853

austria excluded from german customs union founded in 1834
by 1853 austria was sole confederation state outside the zollverein
prussia gained economic and political leverage through trade leadership

prussian constitutional crisis and army reform 1859–1862

liberal parliament wanted parliamentary control over army
wilhelm i sought army expansion after italian war of 1859
parliament rejected military budget in 1862 causing deadlock

rise of bismarck and realpolitik

otto von bismarck appointed prime minister in 1862
practiced realpolitik focused on power and pragmatism
loyal to monarchy and determined to strengthen prussia
realpolitik: A German term referring to political practice based on a careful calculation of real-world conditions rather than ethical ideals or ideological assumptions, employed by Bismarck and other nineteenth-century politicians

blood and iron speech 1862

bismarck declared government would rule without parliament
rejected liberal ideals of 1848 and 1849
argued major issues decided by force not debate

defying parliament and military buildup 1862–1866

continued tax collection despite budget refusal
reorganized and strengthened the prussian army
liberals kept winning elections but lacked power

schleswig-holstein crisis and war with denmark 1864

disputed provinces had large ethnic german populations
denmark attempted tighter control against confederation wishes
prussia and austria defeated denmark together

preparing conflict with austria

bismarck aimed to expel austria from german affairs
secured neutrality of russia france and italy
used diplomacy promises and past alliances

austro-prussian war and northern confederation 1866

seven-week war ended with victory at sadowa july 3 1866
austria removed from german politics without harsh punishment
north german confederation formed under prussian dominance

Taming the German Parliament

bismarck and conservative nationalism

believed conservatives must compromise with middle class nationalists
influenced by napoleon iii and lessons of 1848
linked prussia’s future to national development of germany

north german confederation constitution 1867

created federal system with strong prussian dominance
king of prussia became president and bismarck chancellor
universal male suffrage existed but real power stayed with king and army

reconciliation with prussian liberals 1866

proposed indemnity bill approving illegal budgets from 1862 to 1866
liberals supported government in exchange for national unity
middle class accepted monarchical authority under bismarck

The Franco-Prussian War and German Unification

franco-prussian war and unification strategy 1870

bismarck provoked france using spanish succession issue
south german states allied with prussia against france
aimed to unite germany through patriotic war

decisive victories and fall of napoleon iii

prussia defeated french army at sedan september 1 1870
napoleon iii captured and paris besieged until january 1871
french republic proclaimed but ultimately surrendered

proclamation of the german empire 1871

wilhelm i crowned emperor in versailles hall of mirrors
chancellor bismarck and prussian ministers held real power
lower house elected by universal male suffrage

harsh peace terms for france

france paid 5 billion francs indemnity
lost alsace and part of lorraine to germany
created lasting hostility between france and germany

rise of german nationalism and conservatism

patriotic fervor surged after war and unification
germany became most powerful european state in a decade
semi-authoritarian nationalism allied nobles and middle class

Lesson 13.3: How did Russian and Ottoman leaders modernize their states and societies?

political crises in russia and the ottoman empire mid-19th century

empires were vast, multiethnic, and built on absolutist rule
elites opposed representative government and minority independence
modernization needed in economy, military, and society to compete with europe

The “Great Reforms” in Russia

russian society and need for reform 1850s

largely agrarian, 90 percent of population were peasants
serfs had almost no rights, uprisings common, modernization slow
protest movements ranged from radical marxists to liberal intellectuals

crimean war 1853–1856

crimean war: A conflict fought between 1853 and 1856 over Russian desires to expand into Ottoman territory; Russia was defeated by France, Britain, and the Ottomans, underscoring the need for reform in the Russian Empire
conflict arose from great power rivalry in the middle east
dispute over protection of christian shrines in jerusalem triggered war
france and britain allied with ottomans to stop russian expansion

crimean war and military lessons 1853–1856

highlighted power of modern artillery, massive casualties, and naval engagements
russia lost ~450,000 soldiers, florence nightingale introduced sanitary nursing
french-led alliance decisively defeated russia by 1856

impact on european balance of power

austria refused to support russia, ending old alliances
great power competition replaced cooperation
tensions helped pave the way for italian and german unification

military defeat and push for modernization

exposed russia’s technological and organizational backwardness
alexander ii pursued railroads, better armaments, and military reform
defeat emphasized need for social and economic modernization

emancipation of the serfs 1861–1866

alexander ii freed ~50 million peasants, granting property and business rights
abolished serfdom on private estates (1861) and state lands (1866)
peasants could buy land but often remained in debt, mir system controlled villages

limits and consequences of emancipation

landlords compensated by government, peasants received little support
most peasants remained on unproductive land in basic homes
reforms failed to satisfy conservatives or radicals, modernization incomplete

judicial and local reforms under alexander ii

unified judicial system, independent courts, jury trials, equal criminal rights
established zemstvos in 1864, elected by townspeople, peasants, nobles, but subordinate to bureaucracy
partial liberalization: relaxed press censorship, eased some anti-semitic laws, but russification increased

economic modernization and industrial growth 1860s–1890s

government subsidized railways, including 5,700-mile trans-siberian railway
railroads linked cities, facilitated grain exports, spurred industrial suburbs and factory workers
emergence of russian revolutionary movements and spread of marxist thought after 1890

territorial expansion and nationalist policies

expanded into far eastern siberia, central asia, caucasus, displacing local populations
resettled peasants from overcrowded western regions to new territories
suppressed nationalist movements among poles, ukrainians, and baltic peoples, consolidating empire

political backlash and industrial surge under alexander iii and witte

alexander ii assassinated 1881 by anarchist “people’s will,” alexander iii reversed reforms
sergei witte (finance minister 1892–1903) expanded railways, established protective tariffs, gold standard
promoted foreign investment in southern russia, especially steel and coal industries, helping russia industrialize

The Russian Revolution of 1905

russian imperial expansion and russo-japanese war 1904–1905

russia sought influence in manchuria and northern korea, conflicting with japan
japan attacked port arthur february 1904, won repeated victories on land and sea
peace negotiated by president roosevelt september 1905, japan emerged as east asian power

domestic unrest and causes of 1905 revolution

business and professional classes wanted liberal, representative government
urban workers organized radical labor movements, peasants still impoverished
minorities and subject nationalities sought self-rule

bloody sunday january 1905

peaceful march on winter palace in st. petersburg demanding petition
troops fired on crowd, killing and wounding hundreds
massacre sparked widespread indignation and opposition to tsar nicholas ii

russian revolution of 1905: A series of popular revolts and mass strikes that forced the tsarist government to grant moderate liberal reforms, including civil rights and a popularly elected parliament

duma: The Russian parliament that opened in 1906, elected indirectly by universal male suffrage but controlled after 1907 by the tsar and the conservative classes

widespread strikes, uprisings, mutinies culminated in general strike october 1905
tsar issued october manifesto granting civil rights and a popularly elected duma
manifesto split opposition, middle-class liberals supported reforms, radicals marginalized

fundamental laws and duma 1906

new constitution established constitutional monarchy, tsar retained army and foreign policy control
duma elected by universal male suffrage, upper house largely appointive, tsar had absolute veto
ministers appointed by tsar, not responsible to duma, limiting legislative power

stolypin reforms and government consolidation

tsar rewrote electoral law to favor conservative propertied classes
agrarian reforms encouraged enterprising peasants, broke collective village ownership
reforms in education and banking accompanied by harsh repression, ~3,000 executions (“stolypin’s necktie”)
by 1914 russia was partially modernized, industrializing, yet repressive and socially divided

Reform and Readjustment in the Ottoman Empire

ottoman empire challenges and muhammad ali

early 19th century ottoman empire faced territorial losses: serbia (1816), greece (1830), algeria (french conquest), while muhammad ali in egypt expanded power (1805–1848)
muhammad ali modernized egypt’s agriculture, industry, and military; his son occupied syria and palestine 1831–1840, threatening sultan mahmud ii
european powers (britain, others) intervened to preserve weak ottoman state rather than allow strong, independent egypt

tanzimat reforms and liberalization

tanzimat: A set of reforms designed to remake the Ottoman Empire on a western European model
reform movement began 1839, high point under sultan abdul mejid with imperial rescript of 1856
aimed for equality before law, modern administration and army, private land ownership, free-trade policies
reforms helped elite christian and jewish businessmen, but most profits went to foreign investors; state debt increased (55 million franc loan in 1851)

limitations of reforms and rise of abdülhamid ii

tanzimat failed to stop european economic control or nationalist movements in balkans
equality before law worsened religious tensions; conservatives opposed reforms, supported sultan abdülhamid ii (r. 1876–1909)
ottomans lost caucasus to russia, balkans gained independence (romania, serbia, montenegro), autonomous bulgaria

young turks and late reform efforts

young turks: Fervent patriots who seized power in a 1908 coup in the Ottoman Empire, forcing the conservative sultan to implement reforms
by 1890s, modernizing reformers united in committee of union and progress (young turks)
seized power in 1908 coup, forced abdülhamid ii to implement reforms
efforts modernized administration and secularized state, but balkans nationalism continued; set stage for modern turkey post-wwi

Lesson 13.4: How did the relationship between government and the governed change after 1871?

rise of the nation-state in europe after 1870

post-1870 decades saw rapid political change across europe
nation-state became the common political framework despite national differences
citizens faced new obligations but gained benefits through expanding state institutions and bureaucracies

The Responsive National State

mass politics and popular nationalism

nation-states fostered mass politics and stronger popular loyalty to the nation
traditional elites adapted while pragmatic politicians gained influence
constitutions and expanded male suffrage spread across western europe

political participation and party competition

voting rights for men extended in britain france germany and elsewhere
elections focused on lower houses of parliament
new parties represented workers liberals catholics and conservatives

growth of bureaucratic national states

large bureaucracies managed populations economies and social programs
states provided free education and limited welfare and public health
benefits increased popular loyalty to national governments

limits and costs of nation-state loyalty

elites reluctantly expanded suffrage and excluded women from politics
most continental states adopted conscription by the 1870s
income taxes introduced to fund expanding bureaucracies and armies

militarism imperialism and rising tensions

elites used militarism and imperialism to distract from domestic conflict
socialist workers often supported national causes during crises
unresolved internal tensions contributed to world war i and the russian revolution

The German Empire

reichstag: The popularly elected lower house of government of the new German Empire after

german empire formed as a federal system of prussia and 24 smaller states
strong national government dominated by prussia with bismarck as chancellor until 1890
reichstag was popularly elected and gave parties influence despite limits

bismarck and the national liberals

bismarck relied on national liberals until 1878 to support unification and economic growth
liberals backed parliamentary cooperation to legitimize imperial policy
alliance ended over religious and political conflicts

kulturkampf and catholic resistance

kulturkampf targeted the catholic church after papal infallibility in 1870
aimed to place church under state control and reduce catholic loyalty to rome
had limited success mainly in protestant prussia

shift to protectionism and new alliances

in 1878 bismarck ended kulturkampf and courted the catholic center party
high tariffs protected german grain and industry from us canadian and russian imports
protectionism spread across europe in the 1880s and 1890s

suppression and containment of socialism

social democratic party founded in the 1870s alarmed elites with marxist goals
anti-socialist laws of 1878 banned spd organizations and publications
repression failed and spd influence continued underground

creation of the first modern welfare state

bismarck introduced social welfare to win worker loyalty
sickness insurance law passed in 1883 followed by accident and pension programs
first national social security system funded by workers employers and the state

wilhelm ii and the rise of the spd

wilhelm ii forced bismarck to resign in 1890 and legalized socialist politics
aggressive foreign policy used to distract from domestic conflict
german social democratic party: A German working-class political party founded in the 1870s, the SPD championed Marxism but in practice turned away from Marxist revolution and worked instead in the German parliament for social benefits and workplace reforms.
spd became largest party in the reichstag by 1912

moderation of german socialism before world war i

spd shifted from revolutionary marxism to gradual reform
adopted patriotic tone supporting military and imperial policies
socialism became a reform movement rather than a revolutionary threat

Republican France and the Third French Republic

collapse of unity after the franco-prussian war

napoleon iii’s efforts at class reconciliation unraveled after defeat in 1870
third republic proclaimed after the disaster at sedan
paris resisted german siege until starvation forced surrender in january 1871

the paris commune and civil conflict

conservatives won the 1871 elections and agreed to cede alsace and lorraine
radicals proclaimed the paris commune in march 1871 with revolutionary goals
adolphe thiers ordered the army to crush the commune killing about 20000

stabilization of the third republic

monarchists dominated until 1875 but failed to agree on a king
thiers convinced provinces and middle classes the republic was moderate
by 1879 republicans controlled both houses securing the regime

education and nation-building

moderate republicans legalized trade unions and expanded colonial empire
laws from 1879 to 1886 created free compulsory secular education for boys and girls
public education replaced catholic schools as a republican nation-building tool

church-state conflict and the dreyfus affair

dreyfus affair: A divisive case in which Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French army, was falsely accused and convicted of treason. The Catholic Church sided with the anti-Semites against Dreyfus; after Dreyfus was declared innocent, the French government severed all ties between the state and the church
pope leo xiii’s moderate stance eased tensions in the 1890s
dreyfus affair from 1894 to 1899 divided france over anti-semitism and the army
between 1901 and 1905 church and state were formally separated weakening catholic schools

Great Britain and Ireland

whig view and expansion of british democracy

traditional view praised smooth political evolution but later historians see it as incomplete
franchise expanded from 1832 wealthy middle-class males to near universal male suffrage by 1884
liberal and conservative parties modernized politics through reform bills of 1867 and 1884

political parties and constitutional monarchy

whig party became the liberal party in 1859 promoting reform and laissez-faire
conservatives under benjamin disraeli passed the second reform bill in 1867
queen victoria’s reign from 1837 to 1901 symbolized stability as monarchy became ceremonial

house of lords versus house of commons

lords blocked democratic reforms and ruled against labor unions between 1901 and 1910
vetoed liberal measures including the people’s budget after 1906
threat to add new peers forced lords to accept commons’ authority

rise of social welfare and limits of reform

liberal government passed major welfare reforms between 1906 and 1914
david lloyd george pushed the people’s budget and higher taxes on the wealthy
reforms included health insurance, pensions, and unemployment aid but excluded women’s suffrage

the irish question and political instability

irish famine of the 1840s and 1850s fueled nationalist resistance
irish republican brotherhood formed in 1858 and used violence against british rule
home rule bills in 1886 and 1893 failed leaving ireland unresolved before world war i
home rule: The late-nineteenth-century movement to give Ireland a government independent from Great Britain; it was supported by Irish Catholics and resisted by Irish Protestants

The Austro-Hungarian Empire

nationalist tensions before the dual monarchy

conflicting nationalisms in ireland and the ottoman empire show how severe austria-hungary’s crisis was by the early 1900s
magyar nationalists declared an independent hungarian republic in 1848
russian and austrian forces crushed the revolt in 1849 followed by austrian rule and germanization in the 1850s

creation of the austro-hungarian dual monarchy

austria’s defeat by prussia in 1866 and loss of northern italy weakened the empire
compromise of 1867 created the dual monarchy and divided the empire in two
magyars gained near independence while both halves shared a monarch and key ministries

political paralysis and ethnic conflict in austria

ethnic germans were only one-third of the population and feared losing dominance
language in local government and elementary education became a major political issue
from 1900 to 1914 parliament was deadlocked and ministries ruled by decree

magyar dominance and nationalism in hungary

1867 restoration of the 1848 constitution empowered the magyar nobility
only the wealthiest one-fourth of adult males could vote keeping power with the elite
magyarization angered minorities and nationalism weakened the empire by 1914

Lesson 13.5: What were the costs and benefits of nationalism for ordinary people?

building popular loyalty to nation-states

by the 1870s european nation-state boundaries were largely established
leaders sought ways to make ordinary people identify with the state
shared language institutions and national symbols promoted loyalty

exclusion and marginalization within nation-states

not all groups were included in political representation
some minorities were pushed to the margins of national identity
scapegoating accompanied efforts to build national unity

Making National Citizens

the challenge of creating national loyalty

italian statesman noted unification required making italians not just italy
expanded suffrage and welfare raised questions of popular allegiance
loyalty became central in late nineteenth-century nation-states

diversity and weak national cohesion

italy and germany unified diverse regions with different languages and customs
only about 2 percent of italians and 50 percent of french spoke the official language
rural populations and local identities outweighed national loyalty

state institutions as tools of nation-building

conscription spread patriotic values after the franco-prussian war
free compulsory education standardized language and national history
common currency post offices and measurements reduced regional differences

transportation communication and literacy

railways and roads reduced isolation and expanded national markets
literacy and schooling increased access to national newspapers and books
media spread shared political and historical narratives

intellectuals and nationalist ideology

scholars like heinrich von treitschke promoted national superiority
national identity linked to language race religion and folklore
ernest renan argued identity was based on shared will and imagined past

symbols rituals and everyday nationalism

flags anthems capitals and national personifications reinforced identity
new holidays like bastille day in 1880 and sedan day after 1871
monuments jubilees and public rituals normalized national belonging

The Feminist Movement

women’s legal and social inequality

middle-class women faced rigid gender roles and separate spheres
married women lacked legal identity and property rights in england and france
napoleonic code limited property, divorce, and custody rights for wives

feminist activism and professional opportunities

feminists campaigned for legal equality, education, employment, and the vote
unmarried women and widows demanded opportunities for financial independence
german women’s associations influenced the 1906 civil code reform

victories in property rights and suffrage

1882 law in england granted married women full property rights
militant suffragette campaigns before world war i included public protests and hunger strikes
british women gained the vote in 1919 after decades of activism
suffrage movement: A militant movement for women’s right to vote led by middle-class British women, which exemplified broader international campaigns for women’s political rights around 1900. (Ch. 13)

women’s access to higher education

most european countries barred women from full university enrollment before 1900
switzerland admitted women in some programs in 1867, france and belgium in 1880
germany and austria-hungary began limited admissions in the 1890s

socialist women and working-class activism

marxist-inspired women linked women’s liberation to broader working-class revolution
focused on practical improvements for working women, especially in germany
often rejected middle-class feminist reform programs as insufficient

state reforms and suffrage

gradual changes included more equitable property, family, and workplace laws
civil rights improved slowly but meaningfully before 1900
women’s suffrage generally granted only after world war i

Nationalism and Racism

rise of exclusionary nationalism

after 1870s nationalism became more populist and exclusionary
pride in one’s own national racial traits often led to denigration of others
drew on supposed common history, culture, and emerging ideas about race

scientific racism and social darwinism

intellectuals like arthur de gobineau claimed racial hierarchies were biological
gobineau’s 1854 On the Inequality of the Human Races praised the white “aryan race”
social darwinism applied “survival of the fittest” to nations and races

nationalism, racism, and imperial/domestic policy

justified imperial expansion and domestic persecution of minorities
multiethnic states enforced assimilation, e.g., russification in russia and germanization in east prussia
jews were often treated as the ultimate outsiders threatening national purity

Jewish Emancipation and Modern Anti-Semitism

jewish emancipation and integration

by 1870s, western and central european jews gained legal and civic equality
1871 german empire constitution removed restrictions on marriage, occupation, residence, and property
many jewish families entered the middle class and identified as patriotic citizens, though discrimination persisted

rise of modern anti-semitism

stock market crash of 1873 fueled renewed anti-jewish sentiment in central and eastern europe
drew on religious intolerance, ghettos, pogroms, popular nationalism, and pseudo-scientific racial ideas
“protocols of the elders of zion” (1897) spread false claims of jewish global domination

political exploitation of anti-semitism

anti-semitic parties used rhetoric to gain popular support, e.g., karl lueger’s christian socialist party in vienna (1890s)
lueger limited russian jewish immigration and appealed to lower middle class resentment
influenced figures like adolf hitler

persecution in eastern europe

eastern european jews, especially in the pale of settlement, faced extreme poverty and limited legal rights
pogroms from 1881–1884, 1903, and odessa in 1905 killed hundreds and destroyed property
authorities often ignored or facilitated violence, channeling discontent toward jewish populations

zionism: A movement dedicated to combatting anti-Semitism in Europe by building a Jewish national homeland in Palestine, started by Theodor Herzl

popular by Jews in Pale; some embraced this, others migrated to western/central europe and US

Lesson 13.6: How and why did revolutionary Marxism evolve in the late nineteenth century?

growth and moderation of socialist political movements in the late nineteenth century

socialist political parties expanded quickly in the late nineteenth century, rooted in marxist ideology and the goal of international proletarian revolution
conservative upper classes remained concerned about the radical revolutionary rhetoric of socialist politicians
marxism was increasingly integrated into mainstream political life despite its revolutionary language
the consolidation of labor unions and the shift toward marxist revisionism focused on practical, incremental improvements for workers

The Socialist International

rapid expansion of socialist parties after 1871

socialist parties grew dramatically after 1871, with the strongest success in germany
otto von bismarck’s anti-socialist laws and state social security programs failed to stop the rise of the german social democratic party spd
the spd officially espoused revolutionary marxism while pursuing reform through legal parliamentary politics
by 1912 the spd had millions of working-class supporters and was the largest party in the reichstag

creation and collapse of the first international

marxist parties sought international unity, leading karl marx to help found the international working men’s association in 1864, known as the first international
marx gained control of the organization and used its annual meetings to promote socialist revolutionary doctrine
marx supported the paris commune as a major step toward socialist revolution and endorsed working-class violence
fear of radicalism and internal divisions, especially among moderate british labor leaders, caused the first international to collapse in 1876

second international and mass socialist mobilization

after marx’s death in 1883, international proletarian solidarity remained central to marxist goals
socialist leaders formed the second international in 1889, a federation of national socialist parties that lasted until 1914
the organization had a permanent executive, met every three years, and coordinated marxist doctrine and action
may 1 was declared an annual socialist holiday commemorating the 1886 haymarket square labor demonstration, increasing elite fears while attracting many workers

Labor Unions and the Evoking of Working-Class Radicalism

decline of revolutionary socialism in europe

despite revolutionary language, most socialist parties increasingly favored gradual reform over violent revolution
as membership expanded, european socialism became militantly moderate and focused on steady improvements for workers
socialist leaders continued to use radical rhetoric to alarm mainstream politicians
socialists increasingly worked within existing political systems and alongside labor unions to secure practical reforms

reasons for working-class moderation

expanded voting rights and tangible social benefits led workers to prioritize elections over revolutionary action
patriotic education and military service encouraged loyalty to the nation and acceptance of aggressive foreign policy
workers were socially and politically divided rather than a unified revolutionary class
these factors reduced support for radical programs despite continued support for socialist parties

rising living standards and urban improvements

workers’ standards of living rose gradually but significantly after 1850
urban quality of life improved through better housing, sanitation, and services
material improvements reduced willingness to engage in violent confrontation
workers sought further gains but were less inclined toward barricade-style revolutions

labor unions and the turn toward reform

early labor unions were viewed as subversive and were often illegal during early industrialization
british unions gained legal recognition in 1824 and 1825, though the right to strike was limited
skilled-worker organizations known as new model unions focused on collective bargaining and compromise
union success encouraged wider acceptance across europe by the 1870s and expansion to unskilled workers after 1890

russia as an exception to socialist moderation

tsarist autocracy resisted democratic reform, suppressed unions, and provided minimal social welfare
even after the 1905 revolution, the constitution granted limited political rights to workers
most workers lacked the right to vote under the tsarist system
radical socialists such as vladimir lenin continued to advocate violent revolution

Marxist Revisionism

germany as a case study of socialist transformation

germany was the most industrialized and unionized continental country by 1914
german unions gained basic legal rights only in 1869 and faced harassment until the anti-socialist laws were repealed in 1890
union membership remained low at about 270,000 in 1895 out of nearly 8 million male industrial workers
after legal repression ended, membership surged to around 3 million by 1912

shift from revolutionary goals to practical unionism

german unions increasingly emphasized wages, hours, and working conditions over revolutionary agitation
collective bargaining, once condemned by socialist intellectuals, was endorsed by the german trade union congress in 1899
strikes were used to force employers to negotiate when they resisted bargaining
in 1913 more than ten thousand collective bargaining agreements benefited roughly 1.25 million workers

marxist revisionism: An effort by moderate socialists to update Marxist doctrines to reflect the realities of the late nineteenth century

many german union leaders adopted revisionist positions in practice if not in name
marxist revisionism sought to update marx’s doctrines to fit new social and economic realities
eduard bernstein argued in evolutionary socialism 1899 that key marxist predictions had been disproven
bernstein promoted gradual reform through legislation, unions, and economic growth rather than immediate revolution

debates within socialism and international reactions

hard-line marxists in the spd and later the second international denounced revisionism as heresy
despite opposition, gradualist ideas gained tacit acceptance among many german socialists, especially union leaders
in france, jean jaurès rejected revisionism formally but remained a gradualist secular humanist
russian marxists were sharply divided over revolution versus reform before the russian revolution

national variations in socialist movements

socialist parties developed distinct national characteristics by the early twentieth century
russian and austro-hungarian socialists were generally the most radical
the german spd combined revolutionary rhetoric with reformist practice under strong trade-union influence
britain’s non-marxist labour party emphasized gradual reform, while anarchism dominated radical politics in spain and italy

limits of socialist internationalism

socialist ideology varied widely despite rhetoric of international solidarity
national interests outweighed international unity in practice
the idea of socialist internationalism was more symbolic than real
in 1914 most socialist parties and workers supported their national governments when war broke out