Urinalysis Macroanalysis

Unit 1 Urinalysis Macroanalysis

1. Methods for Urine Collection

  • Free Catch

  • Urinary Catheterization

  • Cystocentesis

  • Manual Expression

2. Free Catch Urine Sample

  • Advantage:

    • Simplest sample to obtain.

    • No risk to patient.

  • Disadvantage:

    • Not suitable for bacteriologic examination.

    • May pick up bacteria from fur.

    • Sample can dry out if left out.

3. Urinary Catheterization

  • Advantage:

    • Urine sample is sterile.

  • Disadvantage:

    • More challenging in female animals; may need sedation.

    • Risk of iatrogenic blood contamination.

4. Cystocentesis

  • Advantage:

    • Considered the gold standard for bacterial culture and sensitivity.

  • Disadvantage:

    • May cause hematuria.

5. Urine Sample Analysis Time Frame

  • Action:

    • If analysis cannot be performed within 30 minutes, refrigerate the sample.

    • Allow sample to come to room temperature before examination.

6. Ideal Method to Obtain USG (Urine Specific Gravity)

  • Method:

    • Using a refractometer.

7. Gross Examination of Urine Sample

  • Observations:

    • USG (Urine Specific Gravity)

    • Color

    • Transparency

8. Specific Gravity Relation

  • Relation:

    • Reflects the kidneys' ability to concentrate urine.

9. Definitions of Urine Output

  • Oliguria:

    • Decrease in urine output.

  • Anuria:

    • Complete lack of urine output.

  • Polyuria:

    • Production of excessive amounts of urine.

10. Reasons for Increased USG

  • Causes:

    • Decreased water intake or dehydration.

    • Increased fluid loss from sources other than urination.

11. Reasons for Decreased USG

  • Causes:

    1. Renal disease.

    2. Liver disease.

    3. Endocrine diseases such as hyperadrenocorticism and diabetes mellitus.

    4. Electrolyte or mineral imbalances.

    5. Conditions of polyuria and polydipsia.

12. Normal Colors of Urine

  • Colors:

    • Pale yellow

    • Yellow

    • Dark yellow

13. Normal Urine Color Origin

  • Source:

    • Presence of urochromes.

14. Drug Impact on Urine Color

  • True or False:

    • True; drugs can alter urine color, emphasizing the importance of accurate history taking.

15. Reddish-Brown Urine Indicator

  • Indication:

    • Suggests hematuria or hemoglobinuria.

16. Milky White Urine Indicator

  • True or False:

    • True; indicates the presence of fats or purulent discharge.

17. Yellow-Brown with Greenish Yellow Urine

  • Indicator:

    • Presence of bile pigment.

18. Types of Urine Transparency

  • Types:

    • Clear

    • Cloudy

    • Flocculent

19. Reagent Strips Shelf Life

  • True or False:

    • False; reagent strips should not be kept for over 6 months after opening.

20. pH Measurement

  • What does pH measure?

    • Measures hydrogen ion concentration (H+).

21. pH Variability Throughout the Day

  • True or False:

    • True; pH levels can be highly variable throughout the day.

22. Reasons for Abnormal Urine Acidic pH

  • Causes:

    • Starvation.

    • Consumption of high protein meals.

    • Conditions leading to respiratory or metabolic acidosis.

23. Reasons for Abnormal Urine Alkaline pH

  • Causes:

    • Urinary tract infections (UTIs), common due to urease-producing bacteria that increase urine pH.

    • Conditions leading to respiratory or metabolic alkalosis.

24. Methods to Measure Protein in Urine

  • Method 1: Quantitative Methods

    • Reference laboratories may use sulfosalicylic acid (SSA) to verify positive dipstick results.

  • Method 2: Semi-Quantitative Dipstick Methods

    • Reagent strip testing utilizes the principle of "protein error of indicators" resulting in a colorimetric reaction.

25. Common Error in Protein Measurement via Dipstick

  • Error:

    • Excessive time the dipstick remains in the urine can lead to inaccurate results.

26. Proteinuria in Healthy Individuals

  • True or False:

    • False; healthy individuals typically do not have proteinuria.

27. Issues with Outdated Strips

  • True or False:

    • True; false negatives can occur with outdated strips.

28. Reasons for Glucosuria

  • Causes:

    • Diabetes mellitus.

    • Stress glucosuria.

    • Renal disease.

29. Ketones Reabsorption and Measurement

  • True or False:

    • False; ketones are typically completely reabsorbed by proximal tubules and should not be present on the dipstick.

30. Reliability of Urobilinogen Measurement

  • True or False:

    • True; measuring urobilinogen with a dipstick is considered unreliable.

31. Bilirubin Presence in Urine

  • Type of Bilirubin:

    • Conjugated bilirubin is found in urine.

32. Bilirubin Normality in Dogs and Cattle

  • Normality Status:

    • A +1 for bilirubin is considered normal in dogs and cattle, but abnormal in cats, pigs, sheep, and horses.

33. Forms of Blood Detected in Urine

  • Types:

    1. Hematuria: Presence of intact red blood cells (RBC) in urine.

    2. Hemoglobinuria: Presence of free hemoglobin in urine.

    3. Myoglobinuria: Presence of myoglobin in urine.

34. Minimal or Unreliable Values on Dipstick Tests

  • Assays Considered Minimal or Unreliable:

    • Nitrates.

    • USG (Urine Specific Gravity).

    • Leukocytes.

    • Urobilinogen.