History of Civilizations: The Italian Renaissance and Protestant Reformation

Definition: Derived from the terms Naître, Naissance, and Renaissance, signifying a "rebirth" of classical culture.
Historical Context: Debate exists regarding the contrast between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, as classical culture remained alive throughout the medieval period.
Renaissance Spirit: Characterized as an artistic and intellectual movement focused on the recovery of classical learning.

Educational Program: Emphasized Greek and Latin, rhetoric, history, ethics, and literature.
Goal: To produce virtuous citizens and public officials; however, it remained largely elitist with limited education for women.
Technological Impact: In the $15^{th}$ century, Johann Gutenberg invented the printing machine, leading to the dissemination of the Gutenberg Bible.
Classicism: Renaissance scholars used Greek-Roman texts as models for thought and action, particularly within the urban political arenas of Italian city-states.
Cultural Focus: Became more worldly, materialistic, and non-religious; vernacular languages began to emerge in literature.

Origins: Italy was Europe's most advanced urban society. Wealthy merchant and aristocratic families (like the Medici) patronized artists.
Presence of Antiquity: Italians were surrounded by the physical monuments of ancient Rome, fostering a strong sense of identification with the classical past.
Humanism: Defined by the belief in human potential. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola ( $1463-1494$ ) wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, asserting there is "nothing more wonderful than man."
The Renaissance Man: Concept popularized by Baldessare Castiglione ( $1478-1529$ ) in The Book of the Courtier ( $1528$ ), describing an individual who is multi-talented, brave, and witty.
Neoplatonism: A blending of Platonic ideas and ancient mysticism with Christian theology.

Francesco Petrarch ( $1304-1374$ ): A Christian humanist who argued that writers must inspire moral goodness.
Niccolò Machiavelli ( $1469-1527$ ): Author of The Prince. He argued that politics is separate from morality and that a ruler must be ruthless to preserve the state.
Artistic Innovations: * Discovery of linear perspective in the $15^{th}$ century. * Use of geometry, light/shade effects, and detailed studies of human anatomy.
Key Artists and Works: * Sandro Botticelli ( $1445-1510$ ): Birth of Venus. * Leonardo da Vinci ( $1452-1519$ ): A polymath (painter, engineer, inventor) who created The Last Supper and the Mona Lisa. * Giovanni Bellini ( $c.1430-1516$ ): Member of the Venetian School; his brother Gentile Bellini painted a portrait of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. * Raphael ( $1483-1520$ ): Known for The School of Athens. * Michelangelo ( $1475-1564$ ): Sculptor of David ( $1501$ ) and Moses ( $c.1515$ ); painter of the Sistine Chapel (including The Creation of Adam). * Donatello ( $c.1386-1466$ ): Created the first free-standing nude statue since antiquity, David.

Characteristics: Centered in universities (Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, Prague) rather than urban courts. Focus was more on logic and Christian theology.
Christian Humanism: Sought ethical guidelines and wisdom from the New Testament and Church Fathers.
Desiderius Erasmus ( $c.1469-1536$ ): Criticized church corruption and advocated for a return to the modesty of early Christianity.
Sir Thomas More ( $1478-1535$ ): Author of Utopia, which proposed a society with no private property and complete equality.
William Shakespeare ( $1564-1616$ ): Represented the focus on human nature.

Martin Luther ( $1483-1546$ ): * The 95 Theses ( $1517$ ): Initially intended for academic dispute over the sale of indulgences (the church's system for lessening sins for money). * Core Beliefs: Justification by faith alone, the primacy of the Bible over church tradition, and the "priesthood of all believers." * The Response: Pope Leo charged Luther with heresy and excommunicated him in $1520$ . The Diet of Worms ( $1521$ ) declared him an outlaw.
Spread of Lutheranism: Supported by German princes who wished to consolidate political independence and reduce church taxes.
The Term "Protestant": Originated at the German Imperial Diet in $1529$ .

Anabaptism: A radical sect advocating for adult baptism; feared by both Catholics and other Protestants.
John Calvin ( $1509-1564$ ): Established a theocracy in Geneva. Emphasized the omnipotence of God and eliminated church hierarchy.
Spread of Calvinism: Influenced John Knox (Presbyterians in Scotland), the Dutch Reformed Church, French Huguenots, and English Puritans.
The English Reformation: Triggered by Henry VIII ( $r. 1509-1547$ ) seeking a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. The Act of Supremacy ( $1534$ ) declared the monarch the supreme head of the Church of England.

Waning of the Renaissance ( $c.1550$ ): Caused by constant warfare in Italy, the shift of trade toward the Atlantic, and the Counter-Reformation (censorship and the Inquisition).
Conclusion: The Reformation increased the power of sovereign states and were fundamentally influenced by the textual studies and humanist methods of the Renaissance.