Study Notes on General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency by Robert Agnew

Overview of General Strain Theory (GST)
- Proposed by Robert Agnew from Emory University.
- Aim: To develop a comprehensive strain theory that addresses critiques of earlier versions.
Sections of the Paper:
- Distinction of strain theory from social control and differential association/social learning theories.
- Description of three major types of strain:
1. Failure to achieve positively valued goals.
2. Removal of positively valued stimuli.
3. Presentation of negatively valued stimuli.
- Guidelines for measuring strain.
- Adaptations to strain and factors influencing delinquent vs. nondelinquent adaptations.
Historical Context:
- Strain theory prevalence in 1960s followed by critical backlash in 1970s.
- Notable critiques by Hirschi (1969) and Kornhauser (1978) suggesting abandonment of the theory.
- Current integration of strain variables in delinquency and crime research is diminished.
- Dominance of theories derived from differential association/social learning and social control theories.
Theoretical Need:
- GST argues for a revived and restructured role of strain theory in analyzing crime and delinquency.
- Emphasis on adapting strain theory using contemporary research insights from various related fields.

Nature of Social Relationships:
- Strain theory focuses on negative relationships that hinder goal achievement.
- Contrasts with:
- Social Control Theory: Highlights absence of relationships, where delinquency spikes with lack of parental and institutional attachment.
- Differential Association/Social Learning Theory: Centers on associations with deviant peers promoting delinquent behavior through differential reinforcement.
Motivation for Delinquency:
- Strain theory links negative affect (especially anger) from harmful relationships to delinquent actions.
- Social control theory suggests lack of direction leads to delinquency without external pressures.
- Learning theories address positive reinforcements from deviant groups leading to delinquency.

Types of Negative Relationships:
- Relationships where individuals feel treated unfairly (must align with perceived expectations). Classic strain theories (Merton, Cohen, Cloward & Ohlin) primarily discuss barriers in achieving monetary goals but Agnew expands this to include immediate social aspirations.

Disjunction Between Aspirations and Expectations:
- Main argument from classic strain theorists asserting socioeconomic barriers prevent lower-class from achieving society's gold standards.
- Contemporary critique: neglect of middle-class delinquency, other barriers, and consideration of why only some experience delinquency despite similar strains.
Disjunction Between Expectations and Actual Achievements:
- Stress literature posits that unmet expectations (e.g. income, grades) can lead to emotional distress which propels delinquency.
- Governance of personal expectations contributes to emotional strain and urges corrective action (delinquency as a potential response).
Disjunction Between Just/Fair Outcomes and Actual Outcomes:
- Ruiz and inequity theories discuss how perceived injustices can instigate feelings of anger, leading individuals to engage in delinquency as a means to restore equity.

Strain involves loss of valued relationships or objects (e.g. divorce, death, loss of friendships).
Loss leads to delinquency as individuals attempt to recover their positive stimuli or retaliate against those causing the loss.

Exposure to adverse experiences (e.g. bullying, verbal/physical abuse)
Noxious stimuli provoke aggressive responses, through either retaliation or efforts to escape the negative situation; linked with anger escalation.

Comprehensive Approach Needed:
- GST requires multiple measurement domains:
1. Failure to achieve important goals.
2. Loss of positive stimuli.
3. Presentation of negative stimuli.
Importance of Cumulative Strain Measurement:
- Prior studies often overlook cumulative impacts of strain, necessitating composite scales to assess multiple stressors.
Investigating Magnitude, Recency, Duration, and Clustering of Strainful Events:
- Events considered more distressing if high in magnitude, recent, long-standing, or occurring in clusters reinforcing the strain experience.

Coping Strategies:
- Individuals develop various cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to strain, which can influence delinquency outcomes. Examples include:
- Cognitive Strategies: Individuals either minimize the significance of their adversities or reframe them as deserved (pathology of self-blame).
- Behavioral and Emotional Strategies: Behavioral responses can range from legitimate coping efforts to delinquent behavior seeking revenge or escape.
Factors Influencing Adoption of Delinquent vs. Nondelinquent Coping Mechanisms:
- Characteristics of the individual (goals/values), resources (intelligence, problem-solving skills), and social connections/resources play pivotal roles in steering responses to strain.
- Association with delinquent peers heightens exposure to delinquent models, promoting maladaptive coping strategies.

The general strain theory extends beyond previous frameworks, emphasizing the role of adverse relationships and emotional responses in delinquency.
It integrates insights from various disciplines to enhance our comprehension of strain in criminology.
Future research avenues include testing core hypotheses and exploring the macro-level implications of GST for societal responses to crime and delinquency.