Psychological Perspectives on Crime

Psychological Perspectives on Crime

Definitions

  • Key Definitions:

    • Serial Killers: Defined as individuals who kill three or more victims with a cooling-off period between murders (Edelstein, 2014).

    • Spree Killers: Involve three or more victims in different locations, occurring over hours or days without a cooling period (Fox & Levin, 2005).

    • Mass Killers: Involves four or more victims in a single occasion by one or more killers (Fox & Levin, 2005).

The Trouble with Definitions

  • Definitions are ever-changing, complicating the classification of offenders and prevalence rates.

    • In 2005, the FBI merged spree killing with mass killing and changed the definition of a serial killer from three to two victims. Other agencies classify serial killers as having committed between three to five murders.

    • This change can lead to cases previously classified as not being serial killings to be reclassified, or give the impression of an increase in serial killings merely due to definitional changes.

    • Cooling-off periods vary:

    • Keeney & Heide (1995): Defined as days, weeks, or months.

    • FBI: Minimum of two days.

    • Holmes & Holmes (1998): Minimum of 30 days.

    • Different jurisdictions have their unique definitions, complicating global data analysis.

Examples of Different Killers

  • James Holmes: Responsible for the 2012 Aurora Theatre shooting, killing 12 and injuring 70; previously booby-trapped his apartment.

  • Danny Gonzalez: A British spree killer; killed four and injured two over 48 hours in 2004, having a history of mental health issues.

  • Harold Shipman: The UK’s most prolific serial killer, accountable for 284 estimated murders, targeting elderly patients and was eventually convicted of 15 murders in 2000.

Prevalence

  • Different claims on the number of active serial killers:

    • 2 per year in every city (Phelps, 2013).

    • 200-500 serial killers responsible for 2000-3500 victims each year (Miller, 2014).

    • 2000 serial killers active at any time (Chun, 2019).

    • More realistic estimates indicate around 30 active serial killers yearly (Pappas, 2018).

    • Notable increase in serial killings in the ‘80s/‘90s correlating with advancements in crime scene investigation techniques.

    • Example: Joseph James DeAngelo, caught in 2018, had a criminal history of at least 13 murders.

The Radford University Serial Killer Database

  • Presenting data on serial killer frequency by the decade including total figures for U.S. and international serial killers.

    • Structured in a tabulated format showing the yearly average of identified serial killers across decades from 1900 to 2015.

Typologies and Motives

Mass/Spree Typologies (Dietz, 1986; Holmes & Holmes, 1998)

  • Family Annihilators: e.g. Chris Watts; often motivated by anger or protection.

  • Psuedocommandos: e.g. Elliot Rodger; driven by revenge and often preoccupied with guns.

  • Set and Run: Rare method involving escape plans.

Mass/Spree Typologies (Fox & Levin, 2022)

  • Power: Seeking importance or notoriety through killings. Example: Seung-Hui Cho at Virginia Tech.

  • Revenge: Directed at specific targets, often stemming from personal grievances. Example: Omar Thornton who killed co-workers.

  • Loyalty: Believing they save loved ones from hardship; e.g., Hermino Elizalde.

  • Terror: Killings intended to send a political message.

  • Profit: Committing murders for financial gain. Example: Henry Holmes.

Visionary and Missionary Typologies (Holmes et al., 1985)

  • Visionary: Driven by voices or hallucinations; chaotic crime scenes.

  • Missionary: Actively pursuing to rid society of certain groups.

  • Power/Control: Exhibiting ultimate control through murder.

  • Hedonistic: Seeking pleasure through killings (includes lust, thrill, and comfort killers).

Organised vs. Disorganised Killers (Ressler et al., 1986)

  • Organised Killers: Planning instigated often after trauma; characterized by high intelligence, social skills, and evidence destruction.

  • Disorganised Killers: Spontaneous, below-average intelligence, more likely to leave weapons and often know their victims.

Issues with Typologies

  • Dependency on cases with interviews which may not represent all killers accurately.

  • Lack of clear empirical testing and overlap between categories.

Theories

Biological Theories

  • Brain Injuries/Abnormalities: Studies indicate a correlation between serial killers and head injuries.

    • Stone (2001) identified head injuries in biographies of 99 serial killers.

    • Allely et al. (2014) discovered 21% of mass and serial killers had head injuries.

  • XYY Chromosomes: Case studies on serial killers like Arthur Shawcross noted this genetic anomaly, but inconsistent findings across cases.

MacDonald Triad

  • Consists of bedwetting, fire setting, and animal cruelty as warning behaviors possibly indicating predisposition for violent tendencies (MacDonald, 1963).

  • Criticisms:

    • Bedwetting prevalence does not necessarily correlate with violent behavior.

    • Animal cruelty is more strongly associated with conduct disorder.

    • Fire setting's link to violence is unclear but noted in studies.

Psychopathy and Anti-Social Personality Disorder

  • Meta-analyses indicate marginal differences in psychopathy scores between serial and single murderers.

  • Higher likelihood of personality disorders and paraphilia in multiple murderers.

Media Influence

The Media and Coverage

  • Media sensationalizes stories about serial killers, which may contribute to their notoriety.

  • Greater interest in serial killers has led to ethical concerns regarding the portrayal of victims and families.

Desensitisation Effects

  • Overconsumption of true crime could desensitize audiences to violence while simultaneously increasing fears of violence.

Copy-Cat Crimes

  • Media has a potential role in pathways for copy-cat killings through creating notoriety surrounding perpetrators.

Interrupting Investigations

  • Media coverage can bias jurors and also contribute to misinformation during investigations, as seen in high-profile cases like the Boston Marathon Bombings.

Positive Impacts of Media

  • Can raise awareness and generate support for victims, potentially leading to useful tips in cold cases.

Serial Killer Fandoms

Types of Fans

  • Smith identifies six categories of serial killer enthusiasts: Consumers, Collectors, Dark Tourists, Correspondents, Groupies, and Hybristophiles.

Consumers and Collectors

  • Consumers: Engage with content about serial killers; can be casual or intense.

  • Collectors: Seek “murderbilia,” valuing items linked to killers or crimes.

Dark Tourists and Correspondents

  • Dark Tourists: Visit sites linked to dark historical events or killers.

  • Correspondents: Form personal connections with killers, often through letters or visits.

Groupies and Hybristophiles

  • Groupies: Fans seeking deeper personal connections with killers, attending court dates to support them.

  • Hybristophiles: Individuals with a particular attraction to those who commit violent crimes.

Summary

  • There is limited understanding of multiple murderers; definitions and typologies vary internationally, complicating prevalence assessment.

  • No single theory comprehensively explains why individuals commit multiple murders; it may blend factors like ASPD and personal traumas.

  • Media influence on public perception, desensitization, and potential in promoting copy-cat crimes is significant.

  • Ongoing research is exploring the phenomenon of serial killer fandoms, encompassing various motivations and types of attraction to these figures.