The French Revolution: The Jacobins and the Reign of Terror

Political Parties in the National Assembly

Following the creation of the National Assembly, two primary political groups emerged: the Girondists and the Jacobins. Both were well-educated bourgeoisie groups who initially met to discuss progressive changes.

The Girondists remained moderate, advocating for a constitutional monarchy. The Jacobins were more radical, insisting that France remain a permanent Republic. Once the Republic was established, the Jacobins refused any return to the old system.

The Sans-Culottes and Radical Leadership

The Sans-Culottes were a violent mob of urban poor led by the writer Jean-Paul Marat. They opposed the bourgeoisie and business class, demanding government control over food prices (e.g., bread). In the $1930s$, Adolf Hitler utilized a similar group known as the "brown shirts" to suppress opposition.

In $1792$, three key leaders took control of the National Assembly:

• Jean-Paul Marat: Controlled the Sans-Culottes.
• Jacques Danton: Second-in-command of the Jacobins.
• Maximilien Robespierre: Leader of the Jacobin party.

These leaders opposed any compromise with the monarchy and actively sought the execution of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.

The Rise of Robespierre

Born on $6\,May\,1758$, Maximilien Robespierre was a lawyer and skilled orator who was elected leader of the Jacobins in $April\,1790$. He utilized the Sans-Culottes to physically intimidate and arrest his political rivals, the Girondists. Through these tactics, he established a dictatorship by gaining absolute support within the National Assembly.

Royal Executions and the Death of Marat

In $January\,1793$, King Louis XVI was found guilty of treason and executed. In $July\,1793$, the Girondist Charlotte Corday murdered Jean-Paul Marat in his bathtub to protest Jacobin aggression.

The Reign of Terror ($1793$ - $1794$)

Following Marat’s death, Robespierre assumed absolute power, initiating the Reign of Terror. Significant events during this period include:

• The execution of Marie Antoinette in $October\,1793$.
• "De-Christianization" efforts, including a $10$-day week and the establishment of the "Cult of the Supreme Being."
• The Law of Suspects, allowing the arrest of nobles and former officials.
• The execution of Jacques Danton and Sans-Culottes leaders who questioned Robespierre's authority.

It is estimated that $37,000$ people were executed via the guillotine during this single year.

Modernization and the Fall of Robespierre

Despite the violence, France modernized under Robespierre through the introduction of the metric system, an efficient army, and new educational systems. However, fear of his dictatorship led to a military conspiracy to overthrow him.

During his arrest, Robespierre attempted suicide with a pistol, resulting in a shattered jaw. He was found guilty of crimes against the nation and executed via the guillotine along with $21$ supporters.

Transition to the Thermidoreans

The Jacobins were replaced by the Thermidoreans, a party of business and middle-class citizens. They ended the radical era of "equality for all," removing the title of "citizen" and restoring special privileges to property owners and those with wealth.