Early Christianity and the Byzantine Empire
Early Christianity and the Byzantine Empire Part 2
Administrative and Course Updates
Laptop access issues for a couple of students will be addressed with Moodle admin.
Grades for previous assignments should be completed this week.
Students should continue with Moodle readings and consider topics for their formal art analysis.
The exploration into early Christianity is located in the first section of the Moodle page, alongside the syllabus.
Review: The Fall of Rome and the Rise of Christianity
Sack of Rome: Rome was sacked by the Goths in . While often cited as the fall of Rome, the empire had been crumbling for a significant period. Its political impact was minimal as Emperor Constantine had already moved the capital.
Constantinople: Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey) to be strategically closer to the Persian front, which was a source of conflict.
Rome's Shifting Status: At this point, Rome was primarily a religious center, but even that influence was beginning to fragment. Milan gained importance after Christianity was legalized.
Christianity as Official Religion: With Christianity becoming the official religion of the Roman Empire in March, a complex administrative and hierarchical structure developed, including bishops and cardinals. This led to numerous religious councils during this period to define core doctrines, such as:
The nature of the Trinity.
The importance of the Virgin Mary.
The relationship between Christ's humanity and divinity.
Transformation of Christianity: The religion evolved from its simpler origins (e.g., burials in catacombs with art open to pagan, Jewish, or Christian interpretations) to a powerful, wealthy, and complex institution intertwined with imperial power.
Ravenna: Located on the Eastern Adriatic Coast of Italy, Ravenna emerged as a major center of Christianity, becoming particularly famous for its mosaics.
Mosaics
Definition: A mosaic is an image made of small pieces of colored stone, glass, or ceramic, known as tesserae, held in place by plaster and mortar.
Characteristics: Mosaics typically offer limited detail or depth, but they were a prevalent art form in the Roman world that Christianity adopted for its own purposes.
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia ():
Galla Placidia was the daughter of Theodosius the Great. Her mausoleum in Ravenna is renowned for its mosaics.
"Christ as the Good Shepherd" mosaic: This mosaic is characteristic of early Christian art, depicting Christ without a beard and appearing younger. The image of the Good Shepherd could be interpreted in various ways:
Pagan: As Apollo or Orpheus.
Jewish: As the good shepherd from the Psalms.
Christian: Reflecting the story of Christ seeking the lost sheep and bringing them back to the fold, particularly given that Galla Placidia was a Christian.
Early Books (Codexes)
Pre-Printing Press Era: This period predates the printing press by approximately years, meaning all books, known as codexes, were created by hand.
Writing Materials:
Papyrus: Used in Egypt as an early, somewhat disposable writing medium compared to clay tablets.
Vellum/Parchment: In Europe, animal skins (often calfskin for vellum) were used. Vellum was prepared by scraping, providing an excellent writing surface that absorbed ink well. Mistakes could often be scraped off.
Purple Vellum: Dyeing vellum purple, the color of imperial tunics, signified its importance.
Codex: Represented a significant shift from scrolls toward the book format we recognize today.
"Rebecca and Eleazar at the Well" (Folio 7 Arpa, Genesis, Tempera gold and silver on purple vellum):
Continuous Narrative: The scene depicts Rebecca twice—first leaving the city of Nehor, then offering water to Eleazar and his camels—to prioritize storytelling over strict artistic realism.
Artistic Realism: The rendition is not focused on realism; the city of Nehor appears like a miniature dollhouse, a colonnaded street is disproportionately small compared to Rebecca, and the personification of the spring is a "busty lady." Legibility and narrative clarity were prioritized.
Vocabulary:
Vellum: Calfskin used as a writing medium.
Folio: An individual page within a handwritten book.
Codex: An ancient manuscript text in book form.
Tempera: A fast-drying paint technique using pigments mixed with a binder, typically egg yolk. While it binds color effectively without adding its own hue (despite the yellow of egg yolk), tempera does not age particularly well, and colors can change over time. Historically, various binders, some toxic (e.g., arsenic, horse urine), were used; egg yolk was one of the less unusual options. (A theory suggests Van Gogh's mental illness was exacerbated by licking brushes with paints containing arsenic.)
Byzantine Art
Defining Byzantium: The term "Byzantium" or "Byzantine Empire" refers to the continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Western Roman Empire's fall in the 5th century. It endured for another years.
Eastern vs. Western Christianity: A significant difference between the two empires lay in their developing Christian traditions:
Western Roman Empire (later Catholic): Emphasized religious relics.
Eastern (Byzantine) Empire (Eastern Orthodox): Placed great importance on religious icons.
Periods of Byzantine Art: Broadly divided into three phases, interspersed with a period of iconoclasm:
Early Period: From the reign of Justinian in until the onset of Iconoclasm in .
Iconoclasm: A period from to August characterized by the destruction of religious images used in worship, resulting in a scarcity of art from this time.
Middle Period: From August, when the Church reversed its stance on religious art, until , which marked the end of the Fourth Crusade (Constantinople's destruction).
Late Period: From December until , when the Byzantine Empire finally fell to the Ottoman Turks.
Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora
Justinian's Reign ( - May): A highly capable administrator and ruler. He was supported by his equally capable wife, Theodora, and skilled generals like Balisarius and Narcissus.
Military Achievements: Drove Ostrogoths from Italy, expelled Vandals from African provinces, and quelled the Nika revolt (a major rebellion in May of political and religious factions in his own city).
Legal Reform: Codified Roman law into the Justinian Law Code (Code of Civil Law), which became a foundational legal text for many European law codes.
Patron of the Arts: A prolific builder of public works, continuing the tradition of good Roman emperors.
Empress Theodora: A remarkable historical figure.
Background: Grew up in a modest family (father bear trainer, mother actress—a profession often associated with sex work). She herself was an actress before becoming Justinian's mistress.
Ascension to Power: Justinian changed laws to marry her, making her empress.
Influence: She was exceptionally intelligent and capable, ruling as a true partner to Justinian, which was highly unusual for the time. She was known for her charity and her resolve (e.g., her famous statement during the Nika revolt, "purple made a great shroud, that she preferred death as an empress to life as a fugitive," compelling Justinian to stand his ground).
Historical Portrayal: Chronicler Procopius admired Justinian but despised Theodora, often depicting her negatively due to her past and influence.
Hagia Sophia
Name: "Hagia Sophia" means "Church of Holy Wisdom" in Greek.
Construction: Commissioned by Justinian after the Nika riots (May), it was an enormous project completed in a remarkably fast five years.
Architects: Anthemius of Trales (mathematician, specializing in geometry and optics) and Isidorus of Miletus (physics professor, expertise in thrust and support). Neither were traditional architects, chosen by Justinian for their theoretical expertise to create an unprecedented structure.
Architectural Style: A hybrid structure, but largely centrally planned, departing from the longitudinal basilica style common in Western churches. This design fosters a different interaction between the building and its audience.
Dome: Features an enormous hemispherical dome, symbolically representing the kingdom of heaven, often with a blue, star-studded background to evoke the sky.
Engineering Challenges: Domes exert immense downward force. Traditional structures require very thick, windowless walls for support (like the Pantheon with its central oculus). Hagia Sophia's design aimed to create a vast, light-filled interior.
Engineering Solutions:
Thick buttressing on the exterior.
windows at the base of the dome, allowing natural light despite thick supporting walls.
Huge piers (combinations of columns) at the corners to bear the dome's weight, allowing for an unobstructed interior space beneath the dome.
Pendentives: Curved triangular architectural elements that connect the circular base of the dome to the square supporting structure below. They distribute the thrust of the dome onto the piers.
Construction Issues & Stability: Built rapidly, the mortar did not set properly, leading to multiple structural collapses:
Part of the dome fell in May.
A western section fell in September.
Another major fall occurred in .
Despite these early issues and significant geologic activity in the region, the building has been rebuilt and reinforced numerous times, making it stable today.
Justinian's Reaction: Upon its dedication in May of , Justinian reportedly exclaimed, "Solomon, I have surpassed thee," referencing the biblical King Solomon and the Temple of Jerusalem, demonstrating his great pride in the achievement.
Changing Religious Status: The Hagia Sophia boasts a complex history of religious conversion:
Original Use: Built as a Christian church.
Ottoman Conquest (): Converted into a mosque by the Ottoman Turks, with the addition of four minarets (Islamic architectural features) on the exterior.
Secular Republic (): Under Ataturk, Turkey became a secular republic, and the Hagia Sophia was converted into a museum.
Reconversion (): The 1934 decision was annulled, and it was reclassified as a mosque under President Erdogan, a move that sparked international controversy.
Interior Features: The interior showcases both Christian mosaics and large circular panels inscribed with Arabic script (a common decorative element in Islamic art, which generally avoids figural representation). Currently, curtains cover the Christian figural art.
San Vitale, Ravenna
Context: Constructed in Ravenna during the middle of Justinian's reign ( - ), after he had recaptured Italy from the Ostrogoths and established Ravenna as his western capital (Constantinople remained the eastern capital).
Exterior: The architecture is modest and unremarkable, made of brick due to the scarcity of natural stone in Ravenna.
Niches/Exedrae: Semicircular niches, or exedrae, were incorporated for statues or thrones (specifically for Justinian and Theodora, who would sit in them, though they never visited in person).
Narthex: Features a narthex, a front porch serving as an entrance area to the church (analogous to a portico in Greek temple design).
Plan: Octagonal plan, essentially centrally planned with a small apse, reminiscent of a miniature Hagia Sophia.
Purpose: Built over the grave of Saint Vitalis, who was allegedly martyred on the site. Its construction was funded by gold soldi.
Interior: Adorned with elaborate mosaics, for which Ravenna is renowned.
Mosaics of Justinian and Theodora
"Justinian and His Attendants" Mosaic:
Byzantine Style: Characterized by glowing tesserae and often gold backgrounds, symbolizing wealth, divinity, and the golden light of heaven.
Theme of Offering: Justinian and Theodora are depicted offering themselves and the church to the people of Ravenna, similar to ancient Near Eastern votive statues. These mosaics served as a constant symbolic presence of the emperors, who never actually visited San Vitale.
Depiction of Justinian: Draped in imperial purple, wearing a large jeweled brooch. He is shown with a halo, which originally denoted imperial power before becoming a symbol for religious figures in Christian art. He holds a model of the church to offer to Saint Vitalis, along with a Eucharistic red plate. His companions carry a cross, a gospel book, and a censor (for incense).
Artistic Rendering: Displays a lack of depth and naturalism, with figures often depicted with awkwardly positioned feet ("ballet second position"). Emphasis is placed on imperial regalia and symbolic elements.
"Theodora and Her Attendants" Mosaic:
Unusual Prominence: It was unusual for an empress to be featured so prominently in such art.
Depiction of Theodora: Also shown in imperial purple, adorned with extensive jewelry, including a beautiful headdress likely made with abalone shell pearls. She, too, is making an offering to the church.
Symbolic Embroidery: The bottom of her gown features gold embroidery depicting the three wise men (magi/kings) from the biblical nativity story, famous for their gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh to baby Jesus. This reinforces the central theme of offering.
Artistic Rendering: While impressive for mosaics, it reveals limitations in depicting depth and perspective, such as the awkwardly rendered fountain.
Iconoclasm
Abrahamic Religions Context: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all trace their roots to the patriarch Abraham. However, their traditions regarding figural art differ significantly.
Judaism and Islam: Generally minimize or outright reject figural representation in religious art, adhering to biblical/religious injunctions against "graven images."
Christianity: An outlier, having emerged within the Roman Empire, which had a strong figural tradition influenced by Greek art (comfortable with the human body). This led Christianity to generally accept figural art, despite scriptural warnings.
The Role of Icons: Icons were small, portable paintings depicting Christ, the Virgin Mary, saints, or combinations thereof. They were meant to be personal and aid in focusing prayer through the image to the divine figure it represented.
The Problem of Idol Worship ( - Centuries): Over time, concerns grew that people were worshipping the icons themselves rather than focusing on the divine being. Stories of miraculous icons further fueled suspicions that specific images were becoming objects of veneration, blurring the line between icon worship and idol worship.
Iconoclasm Period ( - mid Century):
Definition: "Iconoclasm" literally means "breaking the image." It refers to the ban on all sacred images and the active destruction of icons.
Iconoclasts: The individuals who practiced iconoclasm. They destroyed countless artworks from earlier centuries, significantly reducing the production and preservation of Christian figural imagery, creating a challenging environment for artists.
Significance: This period represents the first major internal conflict within Christianity regarding the appropriate use of imagery, foreshadowing future divisions (e.g., the Catholic/Protestant split during the Renaissance over church decoration).
Notable Exception: Icon of Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels:
Location: Monastery of Saint Catherine's at Mount Sinai, Egypt.
Medium and Date: Encaustic on wood, from the century CE.
Survival: This icon survived the Iconoclast period because the Monastery of Saint Catherine's is the oldest continuously functional monastery in the world and is located in an extremely isolated region (Mount Sinai, Egypt is difficult to invade/access). This isolation preserved its extensive icon collection, which offers a unique glimpse into pre--century icons.
Artistic Characteristics: Exhibits frontality and layered figures, with limited depth. Angels appear somewhat sketchy or dematerialized, possibly drawing from classical art. The Christ child also seems to have classical inspiration. Halos are now used to denote religious figures, distinguishing them from their earlier use for emperors.
Post-Iconoclasm Art
Reaction and Reintegration: Beginning in the mid--century, there was a reaction against the extremism of iconoclasm. The destruction of images was eventually declared heresy, and holy images began to be reintegrated into religious life. This period coincided with attempts to rebuild the power of the Byzantine Empire.
Art During Iconoclasm: Churches built during the iconoclastic period relied on abstract and decorative works, often featuring motifs like flowering vines, which would later influence Islamic art.
Re-Emergence of Figural Art: After Iconoclasm, churches that had their mosaics defaced were redecorated.
Example: Dome Mosaic in the Church of the Domitian: Christ as a Pantocrater: This mosaic showcases a significant shift from the gentle, beardless "Good Shepherd" Christ of early Christianity to a more intense, moody, and bearded "Pantocrater" (All-Ruler) Christ.
Future Developments: The evolution of perspective and three-dimensionality will become increasingly apparent in "Virgin and Child enthroned" paintings in subsequent centuries.