ATTACHMENT

3.1 CAREGIVER-INFANT INTERACTIONS

Reciprocity

a description of how two people interact, in which they respond to each others signals and elicit a response from the other

Alert phases

babies have alert phases in which they signal that they are ready for a spell of interaction
Feldman and Eidelman found that mothers pick up on this signal 2/3 of the time, this varies according to skill of the mother and external factors such as stress (Finegood)
From 3 months interaction becomes more frequent and involves the mother and baby paying attention to each others signals (Feldman)

Active involvement.

babies take up an active role in interaction. Brazelton described this interaction as a dance where each partner responds to the other persons moves

Interactional synchrony

caregiver and baby reflect both the actions and emotions of the other, this is done in a co-ordinated/ synchronised way

Synchrony begins

meltzoff and Moore - observed that this begins in babies as young as 2 weeks old
An adult displaced one of 3 facial expressions/ gestures. The babies respond was filmed and labelled by independent observers. Found a significant association

Importance for attachment

Isabella observed 30 mothers and their babies and assessed the degree of synchrony and the quality of mother-baby attachment
Found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better mother-baby attachment

What is an attachment

attachment = a close 2 way emotional bond between two individuals in which each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security

Recognise attachment by the following behaviours

proximity - people try to stay physically close to their attachment figure
Separation distress - people show signs of anxiety when the attachment figure leaves
Secure base behaviour - returning to their attachment figure regularly

Evaluation

Filmed observation

the interactions were filmed in a laboratory, so had a high control over variables
Observations could be recorded and analysed later, so behaviours wont be missed and more than one observer can record data (inter rater reliability)
Also babies don’t know they are being observed so they do not produce demand characteristics. Therefore the data is reliable and valid

Difficulty observing babies

It’s hard to interpret a baby’s behaviour as they lack co-ordination/ are immobile. So cannot be sure if the behaviours are due to Interactional synchrony

Developmental importance

observing behaviour does not tell us it’s developmental importance. So are not very useful
Feldman suggests that this just gives names to patterns of observable behaviour, without telling us the purpose
Counterpoint — Isabella found that Interactional synchrony predicted the development of good quality attachment

Practical value vs ethics

Crotwell found that a 10 minute parenting class (parent-child interaction therapy) improved Interactional synchrony for 20 low income mothers and their pre-school children
However research is socially sensitive because it can blame mothers for damaging their babies development if they return to work

3.2 SCHAFFERS STAGES OF ATTACHMENT

Stages of attachment — by Schaffer and Emerson

Stages of attachment — a sequence of qualitatively different behaviours linked to specific ages
Proposed 4 identifiable staged of attachment, a sequence which is observed in all babies

Stage 1: asocial stage

first few weeks of life
Behaviour towards humans and inanimate objects is similar. However it is not entirely asocial, babies show signs that they prefer to be with people
Tend to show a preference for the company of familiar people, more easily comforted by them. Form bonds, these form the basis of later attachment

Stage 2: Indiscriminate attachment

from 2-7 months
Displays more obvious and observable social behaviours. Show a clear preference for being with humans rather than inanimate objects
They recognise and prefer the company of familiar people. However babies accept cuddles and comfort from and people
They do not show separation anxiety or stranger anxiety

Stage 3: specific attachment

from around 7 months
Starts to display the signs of attachment towards one particular person, this includes stranger anxiety and separation anxiety
This person is called the primary attachment figure. This is the person who offers the most interaction and responds to the babies signals with the most skill (the mother 65% of the time)

Stage 4: Multiple attachments

Multiple attachments — attachments to two or more people, show stranger anxiety and separation anxiety
Develop shortly after babies start to show attachment behaviour (29% form them within a month, majority by age 1)
These people are called the secondary attachments

Schaffer and Emerson’s research

observational study
They studies 60 Glasgow babies from working class families. Visited the babies every month for 1 year, then again at 18months
They would ask the mothers questions about the kind of protest their babies showed in 7 everyday situations, also assessed stranger anxiety

Evaluation

good external validity

the observations were made by parents during ordinary activities
This prevents the babies being distracted or anxious due to the researcher
Counterpoint — however the mothers aren’t objective, they were likely biased in what they noticed and remembered. So may not have been accurate

Poor evidence for the asocial stage

young babies have poor co-ordination and are fairly immobile, so it would be hard to identify if the baby was anxious
The babies may actually be social but may appear to be asocial

Real world application

can be applied to daycares. During the asocial and indiscriminate stage babies can be comforted by any skilled adult, but daycare may be problematic during the specific attachment stage
So parents use of daycare can be planned using the stages

Generalisability

the study only looked at one sample, from Glasgow, which is an individualistic culture
So results cannot be generalised to collectivist cultures, where multiple attachments from a very early age are more normal (van Ijzendoorn)

3.3 THE ROLE OF THE FATHER

Attachment to fathers

evidence shows fathers are less likely to become a babies first attachment figure. Schaffer + Emerson - father was the first attachment in 3% of cases.
However they also found that 75% of babies form an attachment to the father by 18 months, so they do go on to become important attachment figures

Distinctive role for fathers

Grossman carried out a longitudinal study, studying babies attachments into their teens
Found that the quality of the baby’s attachment with mothers was related to attachments in adolescence. Suggests fathers attachment is less important
However Grossman also found that the quality of fathers play with babies was also related to the quality of adolescent attachments
Suggests that fathers have a different role from mothers - more play and stimulation rather than emotional development

Fathers as primary attachment figures

When fathers take on the role of primary attachment figure, they adopt an emotional role
Field - filmed 4 months old babies in face-to-face interaction with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers.
Both primary caregivers spent more time smiling, imitating and holding babies (more reciprocity and Interactional synchrony)

Evaluation

Confusion over research questions

there is a lack of clarity over the question being asked
The role of the father may be in terms of primary attachment figures, secondary attachment figures, having a distinct role or taking on a maternal role
So its hard to offer a simple answer to the role of the father, as it depends on the specific role being discussed

Conflicting evidence

longitudinal studies such as Grossman suggest that fathers as secondary attachment figures have important and distinct roles in a child’s development
However this would suggest that single mothers and lesbian families would have children that develop differently. McCallum found that these children do not develop differently
counterpoint — an explanation for this may be that these parents adapt to accommodate the role played by fathers. So they do have a distinctive roles, but families can adapt

Real world application

reduces the pressure for women to stay at home, as the father can fulfil the role of the primary attachment figure
Also lesbian-parent and single mothers know that not having a father does not affect a child’s develop. So overall parental anxiety can be reduced

Bias in the research

preconceptions and stereotypes of how fathers should behave may cause unintentional observer bias

3.4 ANIMAL STUDIES ON ATTACHMENT

Lorenz’s research — Imprinting

Procedure

randomly divided a large clutch of goose eggs. Half of the eggs were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment. Half of the eggs were hatched in an incubator, where the first moving thing they saw was Lorenz

Findings

the incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere
When the two groups were mixed up, the control group continued to follow the mother and the experimental group continued to follow Lorenz
This phenomenon is called imprinting - attaching to the first moving object they see
Identified a critical period (a few hours)- if they did not imprint within a certain amount of time, then they would not attach to a mother figure

Sexual imprinting

investigated the relationship between imprinting and adult mate preferences. Found that birds that imprinted on humans, would later display courtship behaviour towards humans
Lorenz’s case study - peacocks imprinted on tortoises, they then only directed courtship towards tortoises, so they had undergone sexual imprinting

Evaluation

Research support

Regolin exposed chicks to moving shapes. When multiple different shapes were placed in front of them, they followed the original
Supports that animals are born with an innate mechanism to imprint on a moving object present in the critical period

Generalisability to humans

humans are much more complex than birds, for example for mammals attachment is a two way process

Applications

Seebach suggested that computer users exhibit ‘baby duck syndrome’ - where the attachment is formed to their first computer operating system. Leading them to reject others

Harlows research — The importance of contact comfort

Procedure

he places 16 baby monkeys with two wire ‘mothers’
Condition 1- the plain wire mother dispensed milk. Condition 2- the cloth wire mother dispensed milk

Findings

cuddled the cloth mother, and sought to seek comfort when frightened. This was regardless of which mother dispensed milk
Shows that contact comfort is more important than food in terms of attachment

Maternally deprived monkeys as adults

found that maternal deprivation had a permanent effect
These deprived monkeys were more aggressive, were less sociable and bred less often. When they became mothers, some would neglect their young, or even attack/ kill their children

The critical period

a mother figure must be introduced within 90 days. After this time attachment was impossible and the damage done became irreversible

Evaluation

Real world value

it has helped social workers and clinical psychologists to intervene to prevent damages to a child’s development (Howe)
Also the importance of attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoos

Generalisability to humans

the human brain is more complex than monkeys

Ethical issue

the research caused severe and long term distress to the monkeys
However his findings and conclusions have important theoretical and practical applications

3.5 EXPLANATIONS: LEARNING THEORY

Learning theory — from the behaviourist approach that emphasises the role of learning in the acquisition of behaviour. Explanations include classical and operant conditioning. Dollard and Miller — cupboard love, as it emphasises the importance of the attachment figure as a provider of food

Classical conditioning

learning to associate two stimuli together so the responses become the same.
Food serves as an unconditioned stimulus, which produces pleasure as an unconditioned response. Over time the caregiver is associated with food, the neutral stimulus becoming a conditioned stimulus which produces a conditioned response (pleasure)
To a learning theorist, this conditioned response is love, an attachment is formed and the caregiver becomes an attachment figure

Operant conditioning

learning from the consequences of behaviour. Pleasant consequence is reinforcement, a negative consequence is punishment
This explains why babies cry. Leads to positive reinforcement as they receive comfort. So the baby directs crying to the caregiver who responds with comforting ‘social suppressor’ behaviour
At the same time the caregiver is negatively reinforced, by giving comfort the crying stops (avoiding something unpleasant). This mutual reinforcement strengthens attachment

Attachment as a secondary drive

Drive reduction. hunger is thought of as a primary drive (an innate, biological motivator)
Robert Sears suggested that the primary drive (hunger) becomes generalised to caregivers as they provide food. So attachment is a secondary drive from association between the caregiver and the satisfaction of a primary drive

Evaluation

Counter evidence from animal studies

Lorenz’s geese imprinted on the first moving object they saw, regardless of whether this object was associated with food
Harlows monkeys displaced attachment behaviour towards to cloth mother, rather than the mother that provided milk

Counter evidence from human studies

Schaffer and Emerson found babies tend to form their main attachment to their mothers regardless of whether she was the one who usually fed them. Isabella found high levels of interactional synchrony predicts quality of attachment, which isn’t related to feeding

Some conditioning may be involved

even through food may not play an essential role, conditioning still might
For example, a baby may associate feeling warm and comfortable with the presence of a particular adult
Counterpoint — this assumes babies play a passive role in attachement, whereas Feldman and Eidelman found that babies take an active role in interactions and attachment

Social learning theory

Hay and Vespo suggest that parents teach children to love them by modelling attachment behaviour and reinforce loving behaviour by showing approval
Shows that attachment is a two way process

3.6 EXPLANATIONS: SOCIAL BOWLBYS THEORY

Critical period — the time in which an attachment must form, after it will be much more difficult to form an attachment

Bowby — looked at the work of Harlow and Lorenz and proposed an evolutionary explanation. That attachment is an innate system that gives a survival advantage

Monotropy

Monotropic - one particular attachment is different from all others and is more important to a child’s development
bowlby placed emphasis to a child’s attachment to one particular caregiver, that its more important than others
Two principles. The law of continuity — the more constant/ predicable a child’s care, the better the quality of attachment. The law of accumulated separation — the effects of every separation from the ‘mother’ add up

Social releases and the critical period

babies are born with a set of innate/ cute behaviours to encourage attention from adults
Called social releasers as their purpose is to activate social interaction, making the adult attach to the baby
Proposed a critical period (/sensitive period) of around 6 months. A child is maximally sensitive at 6 months and this possible extends up to the age of 2
If an attachment is not formed, the child will find it much harder to form one later

Internal working model

Internal working model — our mental representations of the world. This model carries our perception of what relationships are like
This affects the child’s later relationships with friends or partners. Also affects their ability to be a parent

Evaluation

Validity of monotropy challenged

Schaffer and Emerson found that almost all babies attached one person at first, but a minority formed multiple attachments at the same time
Found that the first attachment has a strong influence on later behaviour. So attachments may simply be stronger, rather than different in quality

Support for social releasers

Brazelton instructed primary attachment figures to ignore their babies social releasers
Babies became increasingly distressed and some curled up and lay motionless

Support for internal working model

Bailey assessed 99 mothers and their 1 yr old babies. Measured mothers attachment to their primary attachment figures and researched the attachment quality of the babies
Found mothers with poor attachment were more likely to have poorly attached babies
Counterpoint — there are other influences on social development. For example some believe that genetic differences for anxiety will affect social behaviour of babies and adults, which influences attachment.

Feminist concerns

suggest that mothers who return to work are negatively affecting their child’s development. Burman - this blames the mothers for anything that goes wrong in the child’s future.
However it does have real world application, such as having key workers in day care who build attachments to particular babies

3.7 TYPES OF ATTACHMENT

Secure attachment — most desirable, associated with psychologically healthy outcomes. Shown by moderate stranger anxiety and separation anxiety, and ease of comfort at reunion

Insecure-avoidant attachment — characterised by low anxiety but weak attachment. Shown by low stranger and separation anxiety, and little response to reunion or avoidance to the caregiver

Insecure-resistant attachment — characterised by strong attachment and high anxiety. Shown by high levels of stranger and separation anxiety, and resistance to being comforted at reunion

Ainsworths ‘strange situation’

Procedure

controlled observation (lab) to measure the security of attachment a baby displays towards a caregiver. Involves a 2 way mirror with cameras that can observe the baby’s behaviour

The behaviours observed

proximity seeking. Exploration and secure base behaviour. Stranger anxiety. Separation anxiety. Response to union

The procedure has 7 episodes, which each last 3 minutes

Beginning: caregiver and baby enter an unfamiliar playroom

The baby is encouraged to explore (tests exploration and secure base)
A stranger comes in, talks to caregiver and approaches baby (test stranger anxiety)
Caregiver leaves (tests separation and stranger anxiety)
Caregiver returns and stranger leaves (tests reunion and secure base)
The caregiver leaves the baby alone (tests separation anxiety)
The stranger returns (tests stranger anxiety)
The caregiver returns and is reunited (tests reunion behaviour)

Findings — identified 3 mains types of attachment —

insecure-avoidant attachment (type A)

explore freely but do not seek proximity or secure base
Show little reaction when the caregiver leaves and little stranger anxiety
Make little effort to make contact when the caregiver returns, may avoid contact
20-25% of British babies

Secure attachment (type B)

explore happily but regularly go back to their caregiver (proximity and secure base)
Show moderate separation distress and moderate stranger and separation anxiety
Require and accept comfort from the caregiver in the reunion stage
60-75% of British babies

Insecure resistant attachment (type C)

seek greater proximity and explore less
Show high levels of stranger and separation distress
They resistant comfort when reunited
3% of British babies

Evaluation

Good predictive validity

found that those with type B (secure) have better outcomes such as better achievement in school, less involvement in bullying and go on to have better mental health in adulthood
— counterpoint — Jerome said that this is not due to attachment, instead suggesting that genetically-influenced anxiety levels could account for these variations in attachment

Good reliability

good inter rater reliability. Nick tester this and found an agreement between observers for 94% of cases
This is because the procedure is done in highly controlled conditions and because the movements are easily observed

May be culture bound

can only be used for certain cultures
Takahashi did a Japanese study and found large numbers were classified as insecure-resistant because they showed high levels of separation anxiety. However this is was because mothers are rarely separated from their mothers in japan

Other attachment types

Main and Solomon identified a 4th category. A disorganised type D of attachment which is a mix of resistant and avoidant behaviours
However type D babies are unusual, have generally experienced some form of neglect or abuse. Most will go on to develop psychological disorders

3.8 CULTURAL VARIATIONS

Cultural variations — culture refers to the norms and values that exist within any group of people . Cultural variations are the differences that exist between people of different groups

Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg

looked at the proportion of secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachments across a range of countries.
Also looked at the differences within the same countries

Procedure

compared 32 studies of ‘strange situation’ which were conducted in 8 countries (15 were the US), with 1990 children
The data was meta analysed = combined and analysed together, weighting each study for its sample size

Findings

in all countries, secure attachment was the most common classification. But this varied (75% Britain, 50% china)
In individualistic cultures rates of insecure-resistant attachments were similar to Ainsworths. But collectivist cultures (china, japan and Israel) had rates above 25%, and insecure-avoidant was reduced
Found that the variations within the same country were 150% greater than those between countries. E.g the US, 46% securely attached vs 90%

Other studies

An Italian study. Simonella assessed 76 babies, aged 12 months. Found 50% were secure, 36% were insecure-avoidant. Showing higher rates of insecure-avoidant attachment, this is because more mothers are working long hours and use childcare
A Korean study. Mi Kiyoung Jin. Found more were classified as insecure-resistant and less were classified as avoidant. This is because the mother and baby are rarely separated (similar to Ijzendoorn and Kroonenbergs Japan study)

Conclusion

secure attachment seems to be the norms in a wide range of cultures, showing that attachment is innate and universal. However the research also shows that cultural practices have an influence on attachment type

Evaluation

Indigenous researchers

most studies were conducted by psychologists from the same cultural background as participants. E.g Grossman - German and Takahashi -Japanese). Avoids potential problems such as researchers misunderstandings of the language or difficulty communicating instructions. So enhances validity
Also reduces bias and stereotypes
— counterpoint. However this is not true for all research. Morello were Americans when they studied attachment in Efe of Zaire. So some countries may have been affected by bias and difficulty in cross-cultural communication

Confounding variables

studies conducted in different countries are not usually matched for methodology when they are compared in meta-analysis
Poverty, class and urban/rural make-up and age can confound results. Also environmental variables such as the size of the room, as babies might appear to explore more in small rooms, so less likely to be classified as avoidant

Imposed etic

this is when we assume an idea or technique that works in one culture will work in another
For example lack of reunion is seen as avoidant-attachment but in Germany they would see this as independence
So the behaviours measured may not have the same meanings in different cultural contexts, so comparing them across cultures is meaningless

Competing explanations

Bowlbys theory explains different attachment types by identifying attachment as innate and universal
However Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg suggest that global media represents a particular view of how parents and babies are meant to behave. This may override traditional cultural differences in the way children are brought up

3.9 BOWLBYS THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION

maternal deprivation — the emotional and intellectual consequences due to separation between a child and their mother.

Theory of maternal deprivation

Separation vs deprivation

separation means the child is not in the presence of the primary attachment figure
Deprivation are extended separations which causes harm to the baby emotionally and intellectually

The critical period

first 2 and ½ years. If a child is deprived of emotional care during the critical period then psychological damage is inevitable
Also believed there was a continuing risk up to the age of 5

Effects on development

intellectual development. This is characterised by abnormally low IQ. Goldfarb found that children who had remained in institutions had lower IQ in comparison to those who were fostered
Emotional development. May develop affectionless psychopathy, which is the inability to experience guilt or strong emotions towards others.

Bowlbys research

— researched 44 thieves and studied the link between affectionless psychopathy and maternal deprivation —

Procedure

Thieves were interview for signs of affectionless psychopathy
Their families were interviewed to establish if they were maternally deprived
Compared to a control group

Findings

found that 14/44 could be described as affectionless psychopaths and 12 of these had experienced maternal deprivation
Only 5 of the non affectionless psychopaths had experienced maternal deprivation

Evaluation

Flawed evidence

bowlby carried out the family interviews and the assessments which made him bias as he knew in advance which teenagers were expected to show signs of psychopathy
Goldfarbs research had lack of control over confounding variables because the children had experienced trauma.
Counterpoint — Levy showed that separating baby rats from their mother for a little as a day had a permanent effect on their social development

Deprivation and privation

Rutter suggests there’s 2 types of early negative experience. Deprivation is the loss of the primary attachment figure after attachment has developed. Privation is the failure to form any attachment in the first place
Suggested that the long term damage associated with deprivation is actually due to privation
So he overestimated the seriousness of deprivation

Critical vs sensitive periods

there is evidence to show that good quality aftercare can prevent most/ all damage
Koluchova studied twins who had experienced severe mental and physical abuse from 18 months to 7 yrs. Due to good care, they were fully recovered by their teens

Conflicting evidence

most attempts to replicate Bowlbys research fail to produce similar results
E.g Lewis looked at 500 young people and found no association between early separation and later psychopathy
However Gao has found that poor quality maternal care is associated with high rates of psychopathy in adults

3.10 ROMANIAN ORPHAN STUDIES: INSTITUTIONALISATION

Institutionalisation — a term for the effects of living in an institutional setting such as a hospital or orphanage where people live for long periods of time

Romanian orphan studies

studying the effects of institutional care on emotional and intellectual development
The former president required women to have 5 children, they could not afford this so many children ended up in orphanages, in very poor conditions

Rutter et al

Procedure

studied a group of 165 Romanian orphans for many years. The orphans had been adopted by families in the UK
The aim was to investigate the extent to which good care could make up for poor early experiences
Physical, cognitive and emotional development were assessed at ages 4, 6, 11, 15 and 22-25, compared to a control group of 52 children from the UK who were adopted around the same time

Findings

half of the adoptees showed signs of delayed intellectual development and the majority were severely undernourished
Those who were adopted before 6 months had a mean IQ of 102, those between 6 months and 2 years had a mean IQ of 86, and a mean of 77 for those adopted after 2 years
Found ADHD was more common in 15-25 samples. Found those adopted after 6 months showed disinhibited attachment which includes attention seeking, cling lines and social behaviour directed towards indiscriminately towards all adults

Zeanah’s research

Procedure

used strange situation to assess the attachment of 95 Romanian children aged 12-31 months
Compared to a control group of 50 children who had never been in an institution
Also asked carers about unusual behaviour such as being clingy or attention seeking

Findings

found 74% of the control group were classified as securely attachment, compared to 19% of the institutional group
Also found 44% of institutionalised children showed disinhibited attachment

Effects of institutionalisation

disinhibited attachment

being equally friendly and affectionate to all people

Rutter suggests this is an adaptation from living with multiple caregivers during the sensitive period and carers not spending enough time with them
So they are unable to form a secure attachment

Intellectual disability

Most children showed signs of intellectual disability, however most of those adopted before 6 months had caught up with the control group by age 4
So it can be recovered if adoption occurs before 6 months

Evaluation

Real world application

improved psychologists understand of the effects of institutional care and how to prevent the worse of these effects
This has led to improvements in the care system such as having ‘key workers’ so children don’t have a large number of caregivers. And making more effort for children to go into foster homes rather than institutions

Fewer confounding variables

Typically orphans have trauma and its difficult to disentangle the effects of neglect, abuse and bereavement from that of institutional care
However the children from Romania typically had loving parents, they use couldn’t afford to keep them
Counterpoint — however the quality of care in these institutions was poor, with children receiving little intellectual stimulation or comfort. So damages may be due to poor institutional care rather than institutional care itself

Lack of adult data

looked at the children into their early to mid 20s but did not gather data from the long-term effects such as long term mental health problems, issues forming and maintaining relationships, how they may parent

Social sensitivity

socially sensitive as it negatively labels late-adopted children. This may lead to parents and teachers to lower their expectations, leading to a self fulfilling prophecy. It also may discourage from adopting children
However the findings might help benefit future institutionalised children

3.11 INFLUENCES OF EARLY ATTACHMENT

Attachment and later relationships

Internal working model

Internal working model — our mental representations of the world which contains our perception of what relationships are like

Bowlby suggested that a babies first relationship with their primary caregiver leads to a mental representations for all future relationships
This influences the way the person behaves in later relationships and the type of relationships they seek out
May be emotionally distant (insecure-avoidant) or controlling and argumentative (insecure-resistant)

Relationships in childhood

Securely attachment babies go on to form the best quality childhood friendships, whereas insecurely attached have difficulties
Smith and Wilson found that bullying behaviour can be predicted by attachment type. Secure were unlikely to be involved, insecure avoidant were likely to be victims and insecure-resistant were likely to be the bullies

Relationships in adulthood

Internal working model affects romantic relationships

Hazan and Shaver studied the association between attachment and adult relationships
Analysed 620 replies to a love quiz which had 3 sections. First was about current or important relationships. Second was assessing general love experiences and number of partners. Third was assessing attachment type
Found that 56% of respondents were identified as securely attached. 25% insecure-avoidant and 19% insecure-resistant. Secure were most likely to have good long lasting relationships. Avoidant revealed jealousy and fear of intimacy. Resistant showed difficulty maintaining relationships

Internal working model affects parenting

based their parenting style of that of their parents
Heidi compared the attachments of 99 mothers to their babies and their own mothers. Attachment was assessed using the Strange situation. Found women had the same attachment to their babies and their mothers

Evaluation

Research support

Fearon and Riosman found that early attachment consistently predicts later attachment, emotional wellbeing and attachment to children
Showing that disorganised attachment is strongly associated with later mental disorders
Counterpoint — Regensburgs longitudinal study followed 43 people from age 1 up to 16. Found there was no evidence of continuity in attachment, so its not clear to the extent attachment predicts later development.

Validity issues

most research into attachment is assessed retrospectively, so they don’t assess the same persons attachment early and later in life.
Asking questions is open to bias as it relies on the honesty + accurate perception of participants. So most studies may be confounded by other factors

Confounding variables

parenting style may influence attachment quality and later development
Also genetically factors may affect personality which influences attachment quality and later development
So we cannot be sure if it’s early attachment or other factors that influences later development

Opportunity and risk

Clarke suggests the influence of early attachment is probabilistic
Meaning that an insecure attachment does not necessarily cause developmental problems, it may be more likely but other factors are involved
So by knowing someone’s attachment status, we can intervene and help their development. However these labels may create a self-fulfilling prophecy