Geography and History

The word geography is

based on two Greek

words. Geo means “Earth”

and “graphy” means “to

write.”

Human geographers ask

“Where are people and

activities found on Earth?”

and “Why are they there?”

A geography can take a

plane or car to another

place on Earth, but a

historian cannot travel

back to another time in the

past.

1.1 Welcome to Geography (2 of 3)

Geographers Explain Where and Why

A place is a specific point on Earth distinguished by a

particular characteristic.

A region is an area of Earth distinguished by a particular

characteristic.

Scale is the relationship between the portion of Earth

being studied and Earth as a whole.

Space refers to the physical gap or interval between two

objects.

Connection refers to relationships among people and

objects across the barrier of space.

1.1 Welcome to Geography (3 of 3)

1.2 Contemporary Geographic Tools (1 of 6)

What is a map?

A map is a two-dimensional or flat-scale model of Earth’s

surface or a portion of it.

For centuries, geographers have worked to perfect the

science of mapmaking, called cartography.

1.2 Contemporary Geographic Tools (2 of 6)

G I Science: Analyzing Data

Geographic Information Science (G I Science) is

analysis of data about Earth acquired through satellite

and other electronic information technologies.

A geographic information system (G I S) captures,

stores, queries, and displays the geographic data.

The science of taking measurements of Earth’s

surface from photographs is called photogrammetry.

The acquisition of data about Earth’s surface from a

satellite orbiting Earth or from other long-distance

methods is called remote sensing.

1.2 Contemporary Geographic Tools (3 of 6)

1.2 Contemporary Geographic Tools (4 of 6)

G P S: Pinpointing Locations

Global Positioning

System (G P S) is a

system that determines

the precise position of

something on Earth.

G P S is most commonly

used for navigation.

Geotagging is the

identification and storage

of a piece of information

by its precise latitude and

longitude coordinates.

1.2 Contemporary Geographic Tools (5 of 6)

V G I: Collecting and Sharing Data

Volunteered geographic information (V G I) is the creation and

dissemination of geographic data contributed voluntarily and for

free by individuals.

V G I is part of a broader trend in citizen science.

A mashup is a map that overlays data from one source on top of

a map, such as Google Maps or Google Earth.

1.2 Contemporary Geographic Tools (6 of 6)

Geocode System:

What3words

What3words is a

geocode system that

has divided the entire

world into 57 trillion

squares of 3 meters

(10 feet) per side.

Each 9 square meter

(100 square foot)

square is identified by

three English words.

1.3 Making Maps (1 of 6)

Geography in the Ancient World

The science of geography has prehistoric

roots. Some of the major contributors from

the ancient eastern Mediterranean include:

Pythagoras—proposed a spherical

world

Aristotle—demonstrated Earth was

spherical

Eratosthenes—inventor of the word

“geography” and accurately calculated

the circumference of Earth

Strabo—described the known world in

a 17-volume work

Ptolemy—wrote eight-volume Guide

to Geography, codified basics of

mapmaking, prepared many

impressive maps

1.3 Making Maps (2 of 6)

China was another early center of geographic thought

“Yu Gong” (“Tribute of Yu”), a chapter in a book called

Shu Jing (“Classic of History”), by an unknown author

from the fifth century B.C.E, described the economic

resources of China’s different provinces

Pei Xiu, the “father of Chinese cartography,” who

produced an elaborate map of the country in C.E. 267

1.3 Making Maps (3 of 6)

Geography’s Revival

After Ptolemy, little progress in mapmaking or

geographic thought was made for centuries in

Europe. Maps became more fanciful and less

mathematical.

But outside Europe, progress continued, for example:

Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165), a Muslim

geographer who prepared a world map and

geographic text in 1154, building on Ptolemy’s

long-neglected work.

1.3 Making Maps (4 of 6)

The Age of Exploration and Discovery revived mapmaking, where Columbus,

Magellan, and other explorers needed maps to explore. Influential European

cartographers included:

Martin Waldseemüller (c a. 1470–1521) was credited with producing the first map

to use to label “America.”

Abraham Ortelius (1527–1598), a Flemish cartographer who created the first

modern atlas and the first to hypothesize that the continents were once joined

together.

1.3 Making Maps (5 of 6)

Types of Maps

A choropleth map is a map where recognizable areas are

shaded or patterned in proportion to the data collected.

A graduated symbol map displays a graphic multiple times that

changes in size according to the value of data.

1.3 Making Maps (6 of 6)

Types of Maps

A dot distribution map depicts data as points and shows how those points are

clustered together or spread out over an area.

An isoline map connects with lines all the places that have particular values.

A cartogram is a map in which the size of a territory is proportional to the value

of particular data.

1.4 The Geographic Grid (1 of 6)

The Geographic Grid

Latitude and Longitude

A meridian is an arc drawn

between the North and South

Poles. The location of each

meridian is identified on

Earth’s surface according to a

numbering system known as

longitude.

A parallel is a circle drawn

around the global parallel to

the equator and at right angles

to the meridians. The

numbering system to indicate

the location of a parallel is

called latitude.

1.4 The Geographic Grid (2 of 6)

Distances on the geographic grid are expressed in degrees of

longitude and latitude based on the

in a circle.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania City Hall has coordinates of

north latitude and

west longitude.

The ʹs are minutes and ʺs are seconds.

G P S typically divides degrees into decimal fractions

instead, so the above examples would be

north latitude and

west longitude.

The

longitude runs through Greenwich and is known

as the prime meridian.

1.4 The Geographic Grid (3 of 6)

Telling Time

Longitude is the basis for calculating time

We assign

for each time zone so that there are 24 time zones

Greenwich Mean Time (G M T), or Universal Time (U T) is the master

reference time for all points on Earth

The International Data Line is an arc that for the most part follows

longitude

1.4 The Geographic Grid (4 of 6)

Map Scale

The level of detail and the

amount of area covered

on a map depend on its

map scale, which is the

relationship of a feature’s

size on a map to its actual

size on Earth.

What does a scale of

mean in

Figure 1.4.3?

1.4 The Geographic Grid (5 of 6)

Projections

Earth’s spherical shape poses

a challenge for cartographers

to make flat maps that are not

distorted. Transferring

locations on Earth’s surface to

a flat map is called projection.

One of many attempts to

product low distortions maps is

the Mercator Projection. Do

you think Greenland is really

bigger than South America?

1.4 The Geographic Grid (6 of 6)

The shape of an area can be

distorted, so that it appears

more elongated or squat than in

reality.

The distance between two

points may become increased or

decreased.

The relative size of different

areas may be altered.

The direction from one place to

another can be distorted.

The choice of projection

depends on which of these four

distortions are most important to

the map user. You would not

use Gall-Peters Projection if

you need the shape of the land

masses to be undistorted.

1.5 Place: A Unique Location (1 of 3)

Geographers describe a feature’s place on Earth by

identifying its location, which is the position that

something occupies on Earth’s surface.

Place Names

A toponym is the name given to a place on Earth.

The U.S. Geological Survey is the final arbiter in

the U.S. for names on U.S. maps.

Names can be controversial. They can be

offensive to certain groups, such as those with

racial or ethnic connotations.

1.5 Place: A Unique Location (2 of 3)

1.5 Place: A Unique Location (3 of 3)

Site & Situation

Site is the physical

character of a place, such

as topography or elevation.

Humans have the ability to

modify the characteristics of

a site.

Situation is the location of

a place relative to other

places.

1.6 Region: A Unique Area (1 of 3)

Cultural Landscape

A region derives its unified

character through the cultural

landscape, which is a

combination of cultural features

such as language and religion,

economic features such as

agriculture and industry, and

physical features such as

climate and vegetation.

Example: The southern

California region can be

distinguished from the north

California region.

1.6 Region: A Unique Area (2 of 3)

Geographers identify three types of regions:

Formal Region, also called uniform region, is an area within

which most people share one or more distinctive characteristics.

1.6 Region: A Unique Area (3 of 3)

Geographers identify three types of regions:

Functional Region, also called a nodal

region, is an area organized around a node or

focal point.

Vernacular region, or perceptual region, is

an area that people believe exists as part of

their cultural identify.

1.7 Scale: From Global to Local (1 of 4)

Globalization of Culture & the

Economy

Globalization refers to actions

or processes that involve the

entire world and result in

making something worldwide in

scope.

Globalization of Culture

Increasingly uniform cultural

preferences lead to uniform

“global” landscapes. Fast food,

service stations, and retail

chains look quite similar in

many countries.

1.7 Scale: From Global to Local (2 of 4)

Globalization of the Economy

Globalization of the economy has been led primarily by

transnational corporations that conduct research,

operate factories, and sell products in many countries.

1.7 Scale: From Global to Local (3 of 4)

Local Diversity

Despite globalization, many cultural differences within places are

actually flourishing in many cases.

The communication revolution actually offers countless channels

of programming that people can choose for more “local” content.

1.7 Scale: From Global to Local (4 of 4)

Spatial Association

Spatial association occurs within a region if the distribution

of one feature is related to the distribution of another

feature.

What might you conclude about the spatial association

between the two maps below?

1.8 Space: Distribution of Features (1 of 4)

Distribution Properties: Density

The arrangement of a feature in space is known as its

distribution. Density is the frequency with which

something occurs in space.

Distribution Properties: Concentration

The extent of a feature’s spread over space is its

concentration. If objects in an area are close

together, they are clustered. If they are far apart, they

are dispersed.

1.8 Space: Distribution of Features (2 of 4)

Distribution Properties:

Pattern

Pattern is the

geometric

arrangement of

objects in space.

Objects form linear

distributions,

irregular

distributions, square

patterns, and many

other distributions.

1.8 Space: Distribution of Features (3 of 4)

Distribution: Social Distance

Understanding the difference between density and

concentration became essential during the COVID-19

pandemic.

1.8 Space: Distribution of Features (4 of 4)

Distribution Properties:

Major League Baseball

As a result of team

relocations and

additions, the

density of teams

increased, and the

distribution became

more dispersed.

1.9 Space: Identity (1 of 2)

Distribution by Ethnicity

The distribution of

ethnicities in the

United States varies

considerably at all

scales.

Ethnicities are also

highly clustered in

distinctive areas

within cities.

1.9 Space: Identity (2 of 2)

Distribution by Sexual Orientation

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LG B T Q) people may

be attracted to some locations to reinforce spatial interaction with

other L G B T Q people. Some countries protect L G B T Q people; other

countries criminalize the practice.

1.10 Space: Inequality (1 of 4)

Inequality: Gender

Children learn gender roles

through socialization.

Expectations about gender

roles often create hierarchies

between and among groups

that can lead to unequal

power, advantaging one

group over another.

1.10 Space: Inequality (2 of 4)

Distribution by Gender

Gender inequality is reflected in numerous societal norms.

Worldwide, the average income of women is around 50 percent

that of men.

1.10 Space: Inequality (3 of 4)

Inequality Among Countries

The increasing gap in economic conditions between regions in the core

and periphery that results from the globalization of the economy is

known as uneven development.

The income gap between rich and poor countries is growing.

1.10 Space: Inequality (4 of 4)

Inequality Within Countries

Unequal access and economic inequality have also increased within

countries.

In the United States, the share of the national income held by the

wealthiest 1 percent increase from 24 percent in 1970 to around 40

percent in 2020.

1.11 Connection: Diffusion & Interaction

(1 of 5)

Diffusion

An innovation originates at a node, known as a hearth, and spreads

across space from one place to another through a process called

diffusion.

Relocation Diffusion

The spread of a feature through physical movement of people from one

place to another is termed relocation diffusion.

1.11 Connection: Diffusion & Interaction

(2 of 5)

Expansion Diffusion

The spread of an innovation from one place to

another in an additive process is expansion

diffusion. This expansion may results from one of

three processes:

Hierarchical diffusion is the spread of an idea

from persons or nodes of authority or power to

other persons or places. For example, ideas can

spread from political leaders or the social elite.

1.11 Connection: Diffusion & Interaction

(3 of 5)

Contagious diffusion is the rapid, widespread diffusion of a

characteristic when something “goes viral.”

Stimulus diffusion is the spread of an underlying principle,

such as features from Apple’s iPhone adopted by competitors.

1.11 Connection: Diffusion & Interaction

(4 of 5)

Spatial Interaction

The diminishing importance

and eventual disappearance

of a phenomenon with

increasing distance from its

origin is called distance

decay.

The reduction in the time it

takes to diffuse something to

a distant place is space-time

compression.

1.11 Connection: Diffusion & Interaction

(5 of 5)

Spatial Interaction

Assimilation is the process by

which a group’s cultural features

are altered to resemble those of

another group.

Acculturation is the process of

changes in culture that results

from the meeting of two groups.

Syncretism is the combination of

elements of two groups into a new

cultural feature.

Interaction takes place through a

network, which is a chain of

communication that connects

places. Some airlines, for

example, have hub-and-spoke

networks.

1.12 Connection: Sustainability (1 of 4)

Connection: Sustainability

Sustainability is the use of Earth’s resources in ways that ensure their

availability in the future.

Three Pillars of Sustainability

Environmental Pillar—we want consumption to be less rapid than

replacement.

Social Pillar—people can choose products that support sustainability.

Economic Pillar—the price of a resource depends on the value people

put on it.

1.12 Connection: Sustainability (2 of 4)

Three Pillars of Sustainability

1.12 Connection: Sustainability (3 of 4)

Earth’s Connected Physical

Systems

A biotic system is

composed of living

organisms. An abiotic

system is composed of

nonliving or inorganic

matter. Three of Earth’s

four systems are

abiotic.

One of the four systems is

biotic: the biosphere

consists of all living things

on Earth.

1.12 Connection: Sustainability (4 of 4)

Earth’s Connected Physical Systems

A group of living organisms and the abiotic spheres with which they

interact is an ecosystem.

The scientific study of ecosystems is ecology.

1.13 Humans & Their Environment (1 of 3)

Adjusting to the Environment

Nineteenth-century

geographers argued that the

physical environment

caused social development,

an approach called

environmental

determinism.

Modern geographers

embrace possibilism: the

physical environment may

limit some human actions,

but people have the ability to

adjust to their environment.

1.13 Humans & Their Environment (2 of 3)

Sustainable Ecosystem: The Netherlands

A polder is a piece of land that is created by draining water from an

area.

The Dutch have created many polders and dikes that have altered their

environment.

Today the Dutch have changed their attitude toward these types of

massive project, but climate change and the resulting sea-level rise

threaten their coastlines.

1.13 Humans & Their Environment (3 of 3)

A Sustainability Doughnut

The city of Amsterdam has

adopted a sustainability model

known as doughnut economics.

The inner ring shows what

people need to lead a decent

life.

The lines radiating from the

center represent the use of

various resources.

The outer ring of the

doughnut represents

ecological boundaries set by

scientists.

Review Summary (1 of 2)

Key Issue 1 Geography is most fundamentally a spatial science.

Geographers use maps to display the location of objects and to

extract information about places. Early geographers drew maps of

Earth’s surface based on exploration and observation.

Contemporary G I Science, including remote sensing, G P S, V G I,

geotagging, and G I S, assist geographers in understanding

reasons for observed regularities across Earth.

Key Issue 2 Geographers identity unique places (specific points)

and regions (areas) distinguished by distinctive combinations of

cultural as well as economic and environmental features.

Review Summary (2 of 2)

Key Issue 3 Geographers work at all scales, from local to global. The

global scale is increasingly important because few places in the

contemporary world are totally isolated. Because places are

connected to each other, they display similarities. Geographers study

the interactions of groups of people and human activities across

space, and they identify processes by which people and ideas diffuse

from one location to another over time.

Key Issue 4 Sustainability is the use of Earth’s resources in ways

that ensure their availability in the future. Sustainability is based on

three interrelated pillars: environmental, economic, and social action.

An ecosystem comprises a group of living organism in the biosphere

and their interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.

The sustainability of some of Earth’s resources is being damaged by

humans.

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