Historical Foundations of U.S. Foreign Policy and the Debate on American Empire

Course Logistics and Student Engagement

• Class Feedback:

  • The instructor expressed appreciation for the student posts, noting they were "pretty cool to read."
  • The PFAs (Policy and Foreign Affairs) students are characterized as overachievers who write extensive essays.
  • Key themes identified in student posts include:
    • The dichotomy between rhetoric and practice in foreign policy.
    • The functionality and failures of the separation of powers.
    • Challenges to the traditional concept of isolationism in U.S. history.

• Reading Material Updates:

  • There is a discrepancy noted between the syllabus and the Canvas website.
  • Policy: Students are instructed to follow whatever is posted on Canvas as the primary source for readings.

• Social Event:

  • Location: A rooftop called "Thailand."
  • Activity: A social gathering with a big screen.
  • Time: $10\,\text{PM}$ tonight.
  • Invitation: Open to all students who do not have mandatory commitments or assignments due tomorrow.

The Evolution of U.S. Global Standing in the 19th Century

• Transition from Colonies to Hegemon:

  • The lecture covers the development of the United States over roughly a century, transforming from $13$ colonies separating from an imperial power into a "hemispheric hegemon."
  • This process was long and uncertain, involving significant domestic and foreign policy shifts.

• Core Domestic Developments:

  • Acquisition of territory.
  • Expulsion of Native Americans.
  • The question of slavery and its role in the economy.
  • The American Civil War ($1861$-$1865$), resulting in a Northern victory and the abolition of slavery.

• The Second Industrial Revolution:

  • The U.S. became the most powerful industrial country globally due to technological innovations in steel and the chemical industry.
  • Natural Resource Advantage: Unlike European competitors (such as Britain), the U.S. possessed nearly endless natural resources (iron, timber, agricultural land) within its own borders.

Comparative Economic Development and the "Process of Takeoff"

• Global Historical Standings:

  • In the $17\text{th}$ and early $18\text{th}$ centuries, China was arguably more developed economically and politically than most European nations.
  • The Takeoff Process: A term used by historians to describe how Western nations (Great Britain, followed by France, the U.S., and Germany) surpassed former imperial powers in the late $18\text{th}$ and $19\text{th}$ centuries.

• Kenneth Pomeranz’s Theory on Geology:

  • Pomeranz argues that Britain's success was partly due to geographical luck: coal deposits were located near manufacturing centers.
  • Because extracting coal required innovation, it spurred industrial development.
  • China lacked a similar geographical incentive or advantage regarding accessible coal, causing it to lag behind.

• The U.S. Specific Case:

  • The U.S. had an abundance of resources required for the second industrial revolution, which sustained its growth as a global power.

Domestic Political Transformations: Reconstruction and Social Backlash

• Post-Civil War Context:

  • The Civil War ended in $1865$, followed by the period of Reconstruction.

• Presidential Reconstruction (Andrew Johnson):

  • Johnson, a Southerner and Democrat (Lincoln’s Vice President), sought to preserve the pre-war economic structure of the South as much as possible.
  • He supported the interest of large landowners.
  • The 13th Amendment: Abolished slavery "except for as a punishment for crime."

• Radical Reconstruction (Radical Republicans):

  • The Congress, dominated by Radical Republicans, opposed Johnson’s lenient policies.
  • They viewed Reconstruction as a "nation-building" process, similar to later U.S. foreign policy models (e.g., Vietnam).
  • Impeachment: Andrew Johnson was the first U.S. President to be impeached (though the conviction failed by one vote).
  • General Grant: Following Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant oversaw the expansion of civil rights through the $14\text{th}$ and $15\text{th}$ Amendments and the establishment of the Freedmen's Bureau.

• The End of Reconstruction:

  • Northern business elites became tired of the social and economic costs of maintaining Southern reconstruction.
  • The Compromise of 1877: Following a contested election, Republicans were granted the presidency in exchange for the federal government removing its hand from the South.
  • Consequence: This led to the introduction of Jim Crow laws and a systematic rollback of civil rights.

Western Expansion, Labor Markets, and the Chinese Exclusion Act

• Shift Toward the West:

  • Capital and interest moved toward the West: railroad construction (Pacific railroads) and land acquisition.
  • Railroads were built using immigrant labor (mostly Irish on the East and Chinese on the West Coast) and poor Southerners seeking wages.

• The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882):

  • Economic downturns in the $1880\text{s}$ fueled nativism.
  • Arguments were made that foreign workers were lowering wages and "stealing jobs."
  • This was the first U.S. law to exclude an entire race from entry, a policy that remained in various forms until the $1960\text{s}$.

• Revisionist Interpretation (William Apple Williams):

  • Revisionist historians argue that once the domestic market was "saturated" and the West was "conquered," the U.S. had to look abroad.
  • Imperialism was motivated by the need for foreign markets to consume the surplus products of U.S. industry to avoid boom-and-bust cycles.

Geopolitics and the Economics of Global Commodities: The Role of Sugar

• Sugar as a Driver of Empire:

  • Sugar was the primary commodity of the Spanish Empire and the main driver behind transatlantic slavery ($16\text{th}$-$18\text{th}$ centuries).
  • Geography: Sugarcane cannot grow in Europe (except through beet sugar, started by Napoleon); it requires the climate of South America and the Caribbean.
  • Labor: It is an extremely labor-intensive and lucrative business due to sugar’s addictive properties and use as a preservative.
  • History: The English Industrial Revolution was "literally powered by sugar," as workers consumed tea with sugar for calories during long hours.

• Strategic Importance of Cuba:

  • Cuba was the most influential island in the Caribbean.
  • It controls access to the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi River.
  • Thomas Jefferson's Metaphor: He described Cuba as the "ripe apple" that the U.S. was waiting to fall into its hand for both economic and security reasons.

The Spanish-American War and the Birth of a Transoceanic Power

• USS Maine Incident:

  • The ship exploded in Havana Harbor, killing approximately $240$ service members.
  • Yellow Journalism: Hearst and Pulitzer used sensational headlines ("the original version of clickbait") to blame the Spanish without evidence.
  • Modern Context: A $1970\text{s}$ Navy investigation suggested the explosion was likely an internal malfunction, not Spanish sabotage.

• William McKinley’s Stance:

  • McKinley was initially reluctant to go to war because he had served in the Civil War and understood the horrors of combat (the "bloodiest war in history" with up to $600,000$ lives lost).
  • Diplomatic triggers, such as the intercepted De Lome telegram which insulted McKinley, eventually pushed him into the conflict in $1898$.

• Outcomes of the "Splendid Little War":

  • The war lasted less than $4$ months.
  • The U.S. acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, and effectively controlled Cuba.
  • Hawaii was acquired as a side effect.

Questions and Class Discussion

• Discussion Topic: Is the United States an Empire?

  • Student Argument (Ben): Argues that while the U.S. held colonies for military/economic reasons, it was more incidental than intentional compared to Rome or Persia. We gave some islands up quickly.
  • Student Argument (Summer): Questions the difference between territorial control and significant influence over a nation's economy and military (Soft vs. Hard power).
  • Discussion on NATO and Russia:
    • A debate ensued regarding whether NATO expansion constitutes American imperialism.
    • One student argues Russia's invasion of Ukraine was a "self-defense on a macro scale" against NATO encroachment.
    • Another student counters that this is a "Russian propaganda piece," asserting that sovereign nations have the right to choose their alliances through democratic processes.
  • Philosophical Definitions:
    • Empire on a Spectrum: A student defines empire as a spectrum between hard power (conquest) and soft power (influence through the IMF, UN, culture).
    • "Empire in Denial": A student posits that the U.S. uses the opportunities of an empire while denying the label to maintain the image of "American exceptionalism"—a land of opportunity and freedom.

• Puerto Rico and Statehood:

  • Discussion mentions that the U.S. gives more to Puerto Rico in aid than it takes in taxes, yet the status remains contested. Many in Puerto Rico favor statehood, but political barriers remain in the U.S. Congress.

• Final Thoughts on Imperialism:

  • The instructor notes that traditionally, empires were driven by historical grievances or a desire to restore past glory (e.g., modern Russia, China, or Iran).
  • The U.S. version of expansion was historically unique (idiosyncratic) as it looked toward a "brand new" future rather than restoring a lost past, justified by theories like Social Darwinism or the spread of "civilization."