AP Human Geogrphy Semester 2 Stidy Guide
Society prior to the urban revolutions was a hunting and gathering type society. People would move place to place, following their food. They wouldn’t stay in the same place for very long and there was no large groups of people living together. The society was purely based on survival, there is no other major aspect to the society, they are just finding food to survive.
The US Census Bureau is the federal agency responsible for collecting data on the population and economy. They send out surveys every 10 years to make sure the data is accurate and there is enough change to determine the correct representation of each state in congress. Census Tracts are small areas that the Census Bureau uses to track population and housing data. The area is small and relatively permanent meaning they are stable over time because of surrounding road or physical features.
The first urban revolution was during mesopotamia. It was the first time people were able to stay in one place for a longer period of time because there was a surplus of food. That excess of food led to specializations of jobs and stratification. That means there was a ruling class who wanted more built/made to honor them. The second urban revolution was during the industrial revolution in England. The factories being built meant more people nearby, which created close by living and expansions and creation of bigger cities. Overall, the first revolution was about the very first city ever, and the second was about the factories drawing people together and creating bigger cities.
The Southeast Asian city model, or the McGee model, is based on a port zone, not a CBD. The port zone is historically built off small importing and lots of exporting, and colonialism, giving it resources and materials. There are large amounts of machinery, shipping containers, freight ships, cranes, and forklifts, and other machines that help distribute the imports and exports. The Alien commercial zone is not native, other asian states involved, normally related to china or commercial zones in other places. The Western commercial zone is influence of Western Europe and US, the colonialism set up in periphery for access to resources. The market gardening zone has a long colonial legacy, meaning lots of cash and luxury crops. It is farther away because they need fresh water, not salt water because salt water will kill the crops. The New industrial estate is how a country gets from periphery to semiperiphery through investment, either foreign or domestic. The industrialization will boost development. In the 60s and 70s the 4 original asian tigers successfully transferred from periphery to semiperiphery through technology. (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore). In the 80s and 90s the new asian tigers (India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam) used manufacturing of cheaper goods like clothing and shoes to propel themselves forward.
The latin american city model, or the Griffin-Ford model has a CBD and a market. The market is similar to the bazaar in the De Blij model, and you will find people withing the disamenity sector shopping there. The disamenity sector has a high population density and is full of 2 groups of people, squatter settlement and the poorest people in the city. There is very little government involvement and very little infrastructure, sanitation, power, running water, etc. There is nothing similar to this in the US. the Periferico or commuter zone is not a beltway, but a major roadway meant to cater towards the wealthy people. It cuts between the lower and higher classes, and divides them. The zone of maturity, to the left of the CBD, is where the middle class live. They move into homes from when the upper class move away that are older, dated, but spacious. It is not the same as the middle class residential tract. The zone of in situ accretion, to the right of the CBD, is the largest in terms of land area. The building and homes look, and are unfinished because they don’t have enough or any city planning, run out of resources and can’t finish building it, or the lack of contracts or construction laws means builders will leave if a higher paying job comes along. This causes the buildings and homes to mot get finished. The mall provides luxury/higher quality goods. It attracts the high class people because of the exclusivity, and classism that keeps out the lower classes. The spine represents the commuter zone route, and a place/area/route that rich elite feel comfortable going to.
Sector model was developed by Hoyt. the middle circle is the central business district where the transactions, buying and selling goods and services, happen. Transportation is all connected and next to the CBD and the low income location. The ow income location is next to the transportation because people with lower income don’t need to travel as far meaning they use more public transportation. The downtown area also has more crime, construction, traffic etc, so the housing is cheaper. The middle income location is better represented in this model than the concentric ring model. The middle income class has the least amount of choice in where they live because they fill in all the gaps between the low and high income. The high income commuter zone shows how the city is suburbanized and has direct transport to the CBD. The commuter pathways shape these areas.
Von Thunen model is analysing the cost of land use based on cost of transportation and perishability. The center dot is the Cental Business District (CBD) where an overwhelming majority of transactions take place, or where products are bought, sold and transformed. Ring 1 is the market gardening and dairy; items have the most perishability like leafy greens, vegetables, flowers, dairy and milk. Ring 2 is forestry; lumber is not perishable, but it is very heavy, and therefore expensive to transport. Ring 3 is the extensive field grain ring; grains have a low perishability and are very light meaning they can be farther from the CBD because they are not as expensive to transport. Ring 4 is the livestock ranching animals; the transportation cost is minimal because they can move on their own, most animals won’t just drop dead, meaning they aren’t perishable, and most people don’t want to live near animals, so they need to be furthest away. The outside is the wilderness, or land that is not considered profitable to farm.
The first agricultural revolution is during 10,000-8,000 BCE in Mesopotamia. Year after year there is the same crop production, foundational/staple crops such as rice, potato, wheat and corn. The second agricultural revolution was during the 1800’s and the industrial revolution. Mass mechanized agriculture and use of machinery taking place of many farmers in the UK, Western Europe and US. The third agricultural revolution, also known as the green revolution is when science (GMOs) advance and appear in the 1960’s. IRS was the first GMO that truely worked and was able to be sold. Mainly in the US and Western Europe, GMO consumption typically people in lower social economic classes, however Sub Saharan leaders don’t want their people to eat GMOs
Intensive subsistence farming is constant physical labor that breaks people down very quickly in order to grow enough food to survive. There is very little capital or tools used, and it is normally in a village in which everyone who can are working in the fields. This constant work only results in a net gain of zero because they only grow enough food for everyone to survive. Extensive subsistence farming is still lots of manual labor, but it is typically less populated and more spacious than intensive. There is a lot less people, usually just a family, so there is less people to provide for. There is less output, but also less mouths to feed, and therefore the net gain is still zero.
Commercial intensive agriculture is something like a feedlot. There are a bunch of cows that need monitoring and taken care of. In the feedlot, the cows are given GMOs through corn or directly. Cows are given steroids and pinned up so they don’t get exercise so it gain weight, producing more food. The main objective is to keep the cow alive and fat. In extensive commercial agriculture, the cows aren’t given hormones or steroids, are grass fed, allowed more range of movement. Usually the cows are happier, meaning it is more ethical. The meat is also more expensive because it takes more time, money and ethics.
An edge city is where businesses go when they move away from the CBD. Once they become successful, more businesses move out there as well. Forward thrust cities are cities that are deliberately placed or moved to encourage economic growth and development. In edge cities, businesses move away and create the edge city, but in forward thrust cities, they are placed or moved there.
Basic jobs are the most unique, rare, or valuable industries that cities want to have the most of. They are not easily replicated because they are too expensive or unique, and usually, the majority of the product is exported out from the city. For example a petroleum refinery is a basic industry. Non basic jobs are the generic and easily replicated industries, and are usually lower tertiary level. The community are the majority of people consuming the product. For example, people who work in the food industry, gas station and grocery stores are all nonbasic industry jobs.
The norfolk four field system is a way of farming that doesn’t require leaving land unplanted, that keeps the soil fertile and allows for year round production. In the first year, wheat or rye is grown as a cash crop for sale, in the second year turnups are grown because they are a root plant that feed livestock in the winter, in the third year, barley is grown as another cash crop, in the fourth year, clover is grown because it naturally replenishes the nutrients in the soil.
Identify agricultural hearths of
Tea is from Southeast Asia
Rice is from East Asia
Potatoes are from South America
Coffee is from Sub Saharan Africa
Cocoa is from Latin America
Range is the distance an individual is willing to travel for a certain good or service. For example Jimmy will travel 4 hours by car for a McRib, but Bobby is willing to go anywhere to get a McRib. Threshold is the amount of people a business needs to be successful in a particular area. For example a McDonalds doesn’t have to be in a large city because people from everywhere will go to McDonalds, but a custom cat pillow business needs to be in a larger city because less people want to buy a custom cat pillow.
Bulk reducing industries are when the final product is lighter than it was when it went into the factory. For example, copper is a bulk reducing industry because the copper ore is a lot heavier than copper wires, meaning it costs less to ship the final product than the raw materials. Bulk gaining industries are when the final product is heavier than what was put into it. For example furniture is a bulk gaining industry because the final couch is heavier than the wood and fabric put into it, meaning it costs less to ship the raw materials than the final product.
High technology corridors are regions located near transportation, and often around a university, that is dedicated to manufacturing and software development. A technopole is a type of growth pole that is a center of high technology research, development, and manufacturing. The technopole is a node that attracts the corridors.
Horizontal integration is when a parent company owns multiple companies that compete at the same level of economic scale. The parent company eliminates competition to make more money in the end. For example, Disney bought Pixar in the early 2000’s then bought Marvel in 2010, then Star Wars. b Vertical integration is when a company owns all of its production process, and no outsourcing occurs. For example Apple owns their entire production process for the IPhone. Their production is completely independent from any other company, and therefore the output can’t be limited or they can’t be blackmailed.
Losch’s zone of profitability is a specific location that will allow a business to maximize their profit, usually in the secondary level of economic scale. The calculator of this zone is depended on the businesses resources, consumption of the product, price, and labor cost.
Describe weber
Weber’s least cost theory states that the further away a resource is from the manufacturing center, the less it costs to transport. For example, if the factory is closest to their resources, then it is probably a bulk reducing industry because it doesn’t cost as much to transport to the market as it does to bring the materials to the factory.
Locational interdependence theory states that businesses choose their location to minimize transportation, labor and agglomeration costs and maximize their profits
Triangle with bottom left as material 1, bottom right as material 2, and the top as the market. The closer the center dot is to one of the corners, the more it costs to transport the product to that corner.
Gross domestic product is the total value of all the goods and services produced inside a country.
A primate city is a city that is disproportionately larger than any other city in the country. The population is at least 4 times larger than the next biggest city. Rank size rule says that the second largest city is ½ the size of the largest, the 3rd largest city is ¼ the size of teh largest city, so on and so forth. Rank size rule can not have a primate city because primate cities are way bigger than any other city in the country.
Mixed use development is the planning of a city that combines residential, commercial, cultural, and industrial uses into one neighborhood, maximizing the space and promoting walkable environments. New urbanism an ideology that promotes walkable, mixed use, and human scaled communities that try to combat suburban sprawl. Post industrial cities are when a city knowingly moves away from industrialization. There are more basic industries in the city, because the city doesn’t want to be mainly industrial anymore.
World cities are a major city in the international economy. They act like a control center for global finance, trade and culture. Megacities are urban areas with over 10 million residents. Metacities are urban areas with over 20 million residents.
The Gross National Income is the total income earned by a country’s residents and businesses.
Gender inequality index is a measure of gender inequalities in a country. This is based on the labor market, or how much women are able to work outside the home to make their own money, women’s health, or the maternal mortality rate and adolescent fertility rate, and empowerment, or the % of women that graduate high school and % of women elected into official chambers in democratic voting countries.
Fair trade is when core level companies cut out the middle man and crate deals with periphery farmers. They do this to give the farmers a decent, livable wage. Free trade is when governments don’t restrict imports or exports with tariffs, quotas, or subsidies.
The urban realms model is based on a CBD or central business district. That business district becomes crowded, and businesses have too much competition, so some businesses move away to the new downtown. The new downtown will also grow too big, creating a continuous cycle until there is one giant CBD in the middle. The businesses will move to the outskirts to get away from the city, when they become successful, other businesses will follow them to the outskirts. Then they become exurbs because the rich people move out as well. This is also a continuous cycle, surrounding the CBD in edge cities and exurbs. People stay in their realm because of central place theory, which states people will travel the least distance to get products or services of similar quality and price. The realms have everything people want, and success creates success, meaning the people don’t normally leave their realm. The only exception to this is an outlier. Certain things will bring people out of their realm because everything can’t be found everywhere. One example of this is an airport. There doesn’t need to be a separate airport for each realm, so the airport acts as a node for the realm it is in.
The concentric ring or zone model, developed by Burgess, starts as ring 1 (center circle), then has 4 more rings circling it. The center circle is the CBD where wealthy people live in the downtown area, and the poorest people live. Ring 2, or the zone of transition has an immense amount of factories, warehouses, docks, shipping ports, and the extremely low socioeconomic class of housing. People that don’t have enough money to live elsewhere live here because of the cheap housing. Ring 3, or the blue collar residences house the people that would service your home, electricians, construction workers, plumbers, etc. it has lower middle class housing (in between), older, smaller houses that are in better shape than the zot. Ring 4, or middle income housing, is the largest socioeconomic class that has average everything, that also has the largest land area. What is considered average changes overtime. Ring 5, the high income commuter zone, house the people that have the most training, skills, and education. It is the highest socioeconomic class with counterurbanization and suburbanization. The commuter zone is high income people don’t want to live with lower classes, meaning they move out. The big highways/interstates that go directly to downtown.
Describe each level of Rostow's development model
Traditional stage is subsistence based economy and lifestyle, there is no real money system, very little innovation, financial, economic, educational, and social institutions are non existent
Preconditions for modernization are the beginnings of development, Mesopotamia, new inventions that propel society forward, first urban and ag rev, specialization of jobs, people are being paid which means there is an economy
Takeoff stage is during the industrial revolution, 2nd urban and ag rev, 2ndary level of economic scale, DTM stage 2 and beginnings of stage 3, counterurbanization and suburbanization, beginnings of regional growth
Drive to maturity are core level countries, diversity in the amount of jobs available, reducing imports and increasing exports, institutions are at final form, world is mostly capitalism which means there is constant growth and people are always needing more
High mass consumption is the US, general consumer wants higher quality goods, meaning the standard goes up, high rise in demand for luxury goods and services because people have disposable income, focus on commercialization because people are constantly buying more things
Outsourcing is when a company allocates at least part of its production process to another company.
Offshoring is when part of the production process is in another company from another country. Onshoring is when products go to another company, and come back to the original company a little more finished or closer to being done than it was when it was sent to the other company. Onshoring is a type of outsourcing and offshoring, but offshoring is not always onshoring.
Free trade zones are heavily based on imports and exports, industrial powerhouses, more trade balance. They are areas where trade is not as restricted by government intervention.
Hotelling's model is based on competition. A hotdog cart sets up on a beach with no other food shops around. They have a lot of success, and when other companies see this, they also want to move out there, and hamburger cart also sets up at the beach. When given a choice, people will go to whatever is closer, so it splits the beach in half. The hotdog cart gets mad, and decides to move to the middle of the beach, which expands their customer base. The hamburger cart also moves to the center because they want to have the same chance as the hotdog cart. The competition benefits the consumers because both carts will try to get more customers than the other. For example, the hotdog cart might offer a free drink with every hotdog purchased, and the hamburger cart might offer free chips with every hamburger purchased. Locational interdependence states that the majority of businesses don’t exist in their own bubble, meaning there will be competition. Businesses that are competitors are magnetically drawn to each other because of the run off effect. The more popular of the 2 will attract more customers, but the other one hopes that people will see the long line, and not want to wait a long time for a similar product.
agglomeration is when businesses of similar industries group together to get economic benefits. Deglomeration is when those clustered businesses move away from each other because those economic benefits no longer exist or outweigh the cost of being there.
Special economic zones are going beyond just importing and exporting, focused on FDI, set themselves up in places that are nicer to look at and attract FDI.
Export processing zones are almost always in the periphery, 2ndary level of economic scale, leaders are only concerned with producing/exporting ad much as possible. This is the opposite of Rostow.
Central place theory says that when given a choice, people will travel the shortest distance possible in order to get a good or service at a similar price and quality. Gravity model says that larger places have greater attraction than small places, and far away places are less attractive than near ones. This means that the closer and bigger the city is, the more people will naturally go there.
The multiple nuclei model, developed by Harris and Ullman. The edge consists of businesses and consumerism, meaning more shopping centers away from the downtown area, this means more access further away from the CBD. the nodes bring people from across the city to specific places, and each city has its own special place. For example, and airport brings people everywhere across the city. Factories are on the opposite side of the city from high class residential because the places are incompatible. This model is essentially limitless because there are different ways this can be looked at. Every city has different, unique nodes, meaning they can have many different areas.
Identify and define the 5 levels of economic scale
Primary level: gathering the materials for a product, for example coal mining, or wheat farming are both examples of first level of economic scale
Secondary level: the materials are brought to a factory to get ready for the market, for example a petroleum factory that refines petroleum into gas, an orange juice factory that turned oranges into orange juice.
Tertiary level: involvement in the transportation of the product, and/or the retail/selling of the product. For example either transporting or selling the orange juice in the market.
Quaternary level: higher level of education, and requires a deeper understanding to make more money. For example, people working in finance, marketing, research and development.
Quinary level: the highest level of education, these are the decision makers. For example, doctors, scientists and government officials.
Commodity chains or supply chains are the steps needed to produce and sell a commodity. For example, all of the steps that turns the planting of oranges into the cup of orange juice in the house. If the price goes down, it affects all of the levels/steps in the chain.
Fordism is the idea of an assembly line, where one person knows how to do one job really well. Post fordism is when part of the process has been automated and less and less people are needed to produce a product.
Explain the hdi and 3 indicators
knowledge , or the number of years students are enrolled in school. The benefit is that you will gain some knowledge, but the issue is that there is no information about the quality of education students are getting.
A decent standard of living, ppp or how much individualized goods will cost within a company depending on location, cost of items will change. Economic output, the total value of all goods and services produced within a country (GDP) and GNI or GDP with the addition of the money that enters and exits a country
A long and healthy life, what factors within a country will allow for life up to a number of years, 79 in core, 68 in semiperiphery, and 62 in periphery countries
Competitive advantage is how well are people pushed to overachieve based on the quality of education system, trading opportunities, skill sets, development, leadership goals. Comparative advantage is which states were gifted the ability to do better economically, certain states have better resources or advantages that allow them to economically succeed better.
Informal economy is the economic activities that are not regulated or taxed or protected by the state. For example, a lemonade stand is part of the informal economy. Formal economy is the economic activities that are recognized, regulated, taxed and monitored by the government. For example, a retail store is a part of the formal economy.
The galactic city model, or peripheral model, is surrounded by a beltway, or outer circle. This creates 1 continuous road that goes around the city, meaning people go faster and businesses don’t have to crown the CBD. This beltway is on the periphery, not surrounding entire periphery states. Decentralization encourages decluttering of downtown, which solves its problems, and decluttering of the center and outskirts, meaning more attraction for the businesses. To accomplish this, cities offer tax incentives for businesses who move to the outskirts, or they might charge more taxes, searches, etc, to push out businesses while trying to make the downtown ideal. Old factories are considered ugly and polluting, so they want to get them out first. To do this they increase taxes for factories in a specific area. Factories are cheap, so they will leave entirely, and go far away. The cities are usually fine with this because it means there are more opportunities for better companies to come in.
Commodity dependency is when peripheral states are to reliant on 1 or 2 commodities that they produce, and if/when the commodity run out, their economy will crash.
Identify the first animals domesticated and the reasoning for it
Cow for milk and meat
Sheep for wool and meat
Pig for meat
Goat for milk and meat
All were chosen because they have the correct temperament to be tamed and they were considered to have multiple functions
The sub saharan African city model, also called the De Blij model, has 3 CBDs. The colonial CBD, the colonists historically will carve out a downtown area within a major city. The colonial CBD has the best infrastructure because of the European architecture and developed in a township and range system (grid shape). There is lots of old legacy and money here because the colonial ancestry still live there. The traditional CBD is the oldest part of the city, where the native people live. This is a result of decolonization when people has better access to everything. There is also a mich higher push for globalization and new technology. Last CBD is the Market zone/Bazaar. There are lots of street markets and shopping and selling out of tents, meaning it is an informalized market with less rules and structure. The vendors don’t have specific times and schedules of where and when they are always there. This also mainly consists of the lower socioeconomic class. The impoverished people are pushed to the outskirts of the city in informal satellite townships. The townships are frontiers where people fill in the unmonitored and invaluable space. People live nearby each other, but they are not a community. The roadways pass through the colonial CBD because it has the best resources. There are clear cut racial lines, meaning it is harder to get stronger economies, and there is still colonial legacy power.
Economic site factors are the 3 highest costs a business is paying for, physical components at business location. Based on the labor cost, land cost, and capital. Situation factors are what is around a business in terms of competition and transportation networks, the further you are, the more expensive it is.