Origins of Agriculture and the Green Revolution

Anthropologist Marshall Solens described them as the "original affluent societies."
Small, close-knit bands (fewer than 100 people).
Prosperous with diverse and well-balanced diets.
Longer and healthier lifespans than early farmers.
Avoided high-starch, highly processed foods.
Lower rates of anemia and longer life expectancy compared to early farmers.
Adaptive and manageable communities due to small size.
Decentralized and egalitarian leadership, work, and social class structures.
Limited private property to what could be carried.
Migratory, allowing them to follow food sources.

Parietal Art: Rock art in Southwest Libya documents cattle domestication around 7,000 years ago.
- Paintings show herding and milking of cattle.
- Scenes of people seated in small groups, like prehistoric cafes.
Archaeological Analysis: Pottery fragments and fossilized bones substantiate the transition from foraging to agriculture and animal husbandry.
Tools: Analysis of grinding stones from a site near China’s Yellow River dated back 23,000 years.
- Starch analysis shows processing of foraged foods like grasses, roots, and wild millet seed.
- Gradual domestication of wild plants like millet.
Fossilized Remains: Evidence of cereal and fig cultivation in the Near East 12,000 years ago.
Early Crops:
- Mexico: Squash and teosinte (wild maize).
- China: Rice cultivation.
Genetics: Used to date animal domestication (cattle and goats) to around the same time frame as early farming evidence.

The agricultural transformation was a response to changing ecological, technological, biological, and cultural conditions.
Evolution: Middle to Late Stone Age humans had brains four times larger than early hominin ancestors.
- Bodies finely tuned for hunter-gatherer success.
Culture: Ability to communicate, cooperate, and share.
- More efficient foraging and hunting techniques.
- Improved food processing technologies.
- Development of granaries for surplus storage.
- Semi-permanent settlements near productive hunting and foraging sites.
Climate Change: After the last ice age (20,000 years ago), the Sahara became a lush, grassy expanse.
- Increased temperatures and humidity dried up the Sahara.
- Ideal conditions for agriculture arose along major rivers like the Euphrates and Tigris.
- Climatic pressures led to a global shift to farming.

Sedentary Living: Allowed for the generation of surplus, encouraging larger constructions and settlements.
Technological Advancements: Development of innovative tools and production strategies.
Population Growth: Easier to raise children in settled communities.
Urbanization: Growth of human societies into massive ancient civilizations (China, Egypt, Peru).
Inventions: Sparked technological breakthroughs like writing, mathematics, and medicine.

Health Issues: Early farmers experienced bone lesions, anemia, degenerative spinal conditions, and lower life expectancies.
Bantu Migration: The Bantu population spread farming techniques across Africa, displacing hunter-gatherers.
- Linguistic map shows the Bantu starting near modern-day Nigeria and Cameroon, then spreading south.
Emergence of Inequality: Development of poverty and wealth due to private property.
- Super farmers produced super surpluses, leading to disparities.
Risks: Farming was a risky food production strategy susceptible to pest infestations, inadequate rainfall, etc.

A second existential food crisis emerged in the 20th century.
Malthusian Concerns: Thomas Malthus warned that population growth would outstrip food production, leading to famine and disease.
The Population Bomb: Paul and Anne Ehrlich predicted widespread starvation in 1968.
Scientific Solutions: Scientists sought to boost yields through hybridization and bioengineering.
- International research programs and facilities were established for each major crop.
- Cereal yields in the US more than tripled in over three decades.
Requirements for Farmers:
- Purchase improved seed from agricultural specialists.
- Use fertilizer, pesticide, herbicide, and seed treatments.
- Invest in petroleum-based products.
- Ensure field conditions are optimized.
Genetically Modified Crops:
- Over 80% of U.S. soybean and cotton acres are planted with genetically modified varieties.
- The first commercially produced genetically modified food was a tomato with extended shelf life.

Many farmers, including the poorest, have yet to reap Green Revolution benefits.
Yield Gaps: Sub-Saharan African farmers grew only one ton of cereal per hectare in the 1960s, while US farmers harvested two.
- US cereal producers have harvested six to seven tons per hectare since the 1990s.
Need for New Solutions: Humanity is again turning to scientists for solutions to population growth, climate change, and global security.

Anthropologists explore and articulate the implications of food production strategies.
Participant Observation: Long-term engagement reveals the hopes, knowledge, and histories of a community.
Example: Collaborative seed testing and production experiment with rural Malian farmers.
- An elder named Bakari identified that older sorghum varieties were no longer working due to decreased rainfall and drought.
- Village named a successful new sorghum variety Bakari Kuruni Nyol (short Bakari sorghum).

Ruth Benedict: The purpose of anthropology is to make the world safe for human differences.
Anthropologists investigate and explain the biological, linguistic, and cultural histories of humankind, including the nature and consequences of our food systems.
Bob Marley: A hungry mob is an angry mob.
The four subfields of anthropology help to understand how food production shapes lives and society.