P8 and P9

Period 8 Timeline- By President

GI Bill (Service Readjustment Act of 1944): Government policy that allowed for returned veterans to continue their education at the expense of the gov: over 2 mil veterans went to college
Led to increase education (postwar boom)
16 Billion dollars in low-interest homes for veterans to make homes, farms, and businesses

Harry Truman (1945-1953; Democrat)

Americans returned from World War II in droves, creating huge demand for jobs and housing. This demand, however, is what revitalized the economy after supposed economic uncertainty.

Baby Boom: Explosion of marriages and births
Affected social institutions and economics: focused attention of raising children and homemaking, but by 1960, ⅓ of all married women worked outside of the home
Levittown: Project by James Levitt to develop a postwar suburbia through 17,000 mass-produced and low-priced family hopes in ong island.
Suburbanism: High demand for postwar housing pushed construction out of cities in affordable suburbs for middle class families. During this generations became suburbanites.
Sunbelt: Florida to California
Warmer climate, lower taxes, economic opportunities (in defense) resulted in greatly increased migration
Shifted industry, people, and political power
Postwar Politics: Truman attempted to continue the New Deal traditions of his predecessor Franklin D. Roosevelt
Employment Act of 1946: Series of progressive measures, including national health insurance, increase in minimum wage, and bill for government commitment to maintaining employment. HOWEVER, this bill was heavily debated and a “water-ed” down version was passed
Created the Council of Economic Advisers (for congress and president) to promote national economic welfare
A coalition of Republicans and Southern Dems + Cold War hinderd a lot of the efforts of this bill
Inflation: Truman pushed Congress to keep prices at wartime levels to prevent inflation from occurring. However, Republicans and Southern Democrats united against him in Congress to relax regulations by the Office of Price Administration, resulting in a 25% inflation.
Strikes: Millions of workers went on strike in 1946, leading to railroad and mine workers threatened the national safety, leading Truman to take a tough approach on unions
Civil Rights: First modern president to challenge racial discrimination
Used executive powers to establish Committee on Civil Rights in 1946
Helped the Civil Rights section of the Justice Department: focused on integrating schools. Executive Order was used to integrate the military
Urged Congress to make a Fair Employment Practices Commission that aims to stop racial discrimination in employment, but was blocked by Southern Democrats. Truman desegregated military in 1948.
22nd Amendment: The Republican-dominated Congress decided to limit presidential terms to a maximum of two after FDR’s servitude of four terms.
Taft-Hartley Act: meant to check the growing power of unions. Outlawed closed shops (contracts that required workers to join a union before being hired). Permitted states to pass right to work laws outlawing union shops. Outlawed secondary boycotts (several unions teaming up to join one boycott). 80-day cooling off period before a strike endangering the national safety could be called
Election of 1948: Truman won, even though he was not popular, he toured the country condemning the other parties and supported FDR’s new deal again - so gained some support!!
The Fair Deal (1949): ambitious reform program
Urged congress to establish national health care insurance, federal education aid, civil rights legislation, public housing funds, and a farm program
Was blocked mostly by Conservatives in Congress except increased minimum wage and expansion of Social Security
Most parts were defeated due to Trumans pre-existing conflicts with Congress and the Cold War
Cold War: The rivalry between the Communist superpower of the Soviet Union and the United States led us into an arms race and space race.
US Soviet-Relations to 1945: Wartime Alliance during WW2 was just a halt
Bolshevik Revolution established Communist Gov, so US viewed Russia as a threat to democracy
Led to the RED SCARE of 1919
US didn’t recognize Soviets until 1933
Previous President Roosevelt + his advisers concluded that Stalin and Commies can’t be trusted, and proven by the Nonaggression Pact of 1939 which divided up Eastern Europe to Stalin and Hitler
Allies in WWII: 5 major allies of WWII (US, Great Britain, France, China, and Soviet Union). They were given permanent seats and veto power in the UN.
Postwar Cooperation and the UN: Soviets went along with the US proposal to establish an Atomic Energy Commission in the United Nations. They rejected a plan proposed by Bernard Baruch for regulating nuclear energy and eliminating atomic weapons. Rejection of the Baruch Plan was interpreted by some American leaders as proof that Moscow did not have peaceful intentions. -- also did not engage in Bank for Reconstruction and Development because saw it as an instrument of capitalism
Satellite States in Eastern Europe: Soviet elections were manipulated in order to keep communists in power as satellite states to the USSR (Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Albania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia)
Occupation Zones in Germany: East Germany was under Soviet Occupation, while West Germany was under was under control of several allied states
Iron Curtain: Truman was annoyed at Soviets because there was rumor that a spy stole atomic secrets for Russia. Curtain was a metaphor to refer to Soviet satellite states of eastern europe.
Containment policy: Truman argued that containing Russian expansion would contain Soviet aggression
Was formed by Sec of State and Undersec of State George Marshall and Dean Acheson + Soviet affair expert George F. Kennan
Kennan stated that only “ a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies” would cause Soviets to back off of Communism

Walter Lippman (Journalist) coined the term Cold War

Truman Doctrine: containment policy in response to threats: (1) a Communist-led uprising against the government in Greece, and (2) Soviet demands for some control of water route in Turkey, the Dardanelles. Asked congress to provide economic and military aid to assist free people of Greece and Turkey against “totalitarian” regimes. Gained support
Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program): Debt repayment plan for European nations that lent them money and made them the creditor.
Berlin Airlift: Soviets cut off all access to Berlin. Truman did not want to withdraw, but didn’t want to use force either
Used US planes to airlift supplies to West Berlin: Also sent 60 bombers capable of carrying atom bombs to England bases
May 1949: Soviets opened up Berlin. Created Two Germanies: West Germany (US Ally) and East Germany (Soviet Satellite)
NATO and National Security: Ten European nations in Western Europe joined with US and Canada in creating NATO (military alliance for defending all members from outside attack. Soviet Union got jelly and made Warsaw Pact
National Security Act of 1947: modernizing of military
Provided for centralized Department of Defense: coordinate operations of the army, navy, and air force
National Security Council: coordinate foreign policy
CIA: to employ spies to gather information on foreign govs
Selective Service System + Peacetime Draft were instituted in 1948
Atomic Weapons: The arms race was a period of militarism by both the United States and the Soviet Union to improve their standing in nuclear battle. In the NSC-68 secret report, the NSC suggested to
- Quadruple defense spending
- Form alliances with noncommunist countries
- Convince the American public of nation’s need for militarism
Cold War in Asia: The containment policy that worked in Europe did not work in Asia.
Imperialist systems in India and Southeast Asia crumbled and new nations were formed
Because of bitter experience with Western influence, they resisted outreach
Cold War in Japan: Japan was possessed by the United States and reconstructed under General Douglas MacArthur, where the government was restructured to be democratic and the military was greatly reduced.
U.S. Japanese Security Treaties: Two treaties in 1951
Ended Japanese claims to Korea and other islands in the Pacific
US ended formal occupation of Japan, but provided for military bases to remain for protection against commies
The Philippines and Pacific: Philippines became an independent republic, but US kept naval and air bases for Cold War
Cold War in China: Kuomintang, the Nationalist Party took control of China’s central government. The Chinese Communists, led by Mao Zedong, defeated the Nationalist Party and U.S. compromise with the communists failed. By 1950, the Nationalists had retreated to Taiwan and the Communists controlled the mainland.
Korean War: After Japanese defeat, Korea was divided along the 38th parallel
Soviet armies held North of the 38th and US forces held South of the 38th
Both armies were withdrawn by, leaving the North under Commie II Sung and South under conservative nationalist Syngman Rhee
Korea-Invasion: North Korean army invaded South Korea
Trumate applied containment policy and called for UN Security Council
Authorized a UN force to defend SK, and US forces made up most of the UN forces
General Douglas MacArthuer commanded the troops
Truman characterized this intervention as police action rather than war
Korea-Counterattack: General MacArthur reversed the war with an assault behind North Korean lines with UN forces pushing them back till China with China then interfering and pushing them back out of North Korea.
Truman v MacArthur: MacArthur was able to stabilize fighting near 38th parallel, but called for expanding the war into mainland China
Truman cautioned MacArthur about his criticism of US policy
In April 1951, Truman + Joint Chief of Staff recalled him for insubordination
Armistice: Peace talks at Panmunjom on July 1951 began discussing agreements for a ceasefire at the 38th parallel
Political Consequences of Korean War: Stopped communist aggression W/O a World War
Truman used Korean War as justification for increasing military, funding a new bomber (b-52) and stationing more troops overseas
Republicans viewed the stalemate in Korea and the loss of China as being soft on communism
Attacked Democrats as members of “Dean Achesons Cowardly College of Communist Containment”
Second Red Scare: Behind civil wars in Europe and Asia, the Truman administration had a tendency to see Communist conspiracy.
Prosecutions Under Smith Act: 1951 Supreme Court ruling in Dennis et al. v. United States made it illegal to teach the overthrow of the government (which was being taught by the US Communist party)
McCarran Internal Security Act: Overriding Truman’s veto, Congress passed this act to outlaw advocating for totalitarianism, outlaw joining Communist organizations, and create detention camps for subversives.
Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC): The committee—with an aim to expose Communists—investigated government officials and searched for Communism in Hollywood and other organizations.
Cultural Impact of the Second Red Scare: led to diminishment of freedom of expression: those who created gritty crime dramas in the film noir style and playwrights began to be attacked as Anti-Ameerican
Loyalty oaths were implemented for teachers and writers as a condition to employment: ACLU argued that such measures were against the 1st Amendment
Espionage Cases: Communist espionage cases in Great Britain, Canada, and the United States heightened fears of a global conspiracy, but raised civil liberties concerns over government surveillance methods.
Hiss Case: Richard Nixon and Whittaker Chambers (a confessed Communist) led to the trial of Alger Hiss, a prominent government official, who was eventually tried for perjury and convicted.
Rosenberg Case: Following suspicions regarding Soviet testing of nuclear bomb, Klaus Fuchs confessed to delivering secrets to Russia. Further investigation led to to Julius and Ethel Rosenberg being found guilty. After controversial trial in 1951, they were executed in 1953 with civil rights activists claiming that anti communist hysteria was the cause for the unjustified executions.
Rise of Joseph McCarthy: Republican Senator said that 205 communists were working in the State Department: became extremely publicized, and used this wave of anti-commie feelings to make himself very powerful
McCarthy's Tactics: Used a steady stream of accusations to keep himself relevant and discredit Truman
“Taking the gloves off” outlook appealed to Working Class Americans (targeted at wealthy)
Many republicans disliked McCs tactics, but was mostly attacked Democrats
Became so powerful Eisenhower didn’t defend his friend George Marshall against accusation
Army-McCarthy Hearings: Senate committee held televised hearings regarding communism infiltration in the army making Mccarthy seem like a bully. Republican and democratic senate members all expressed censure for McCarthy.
Truman in Retirement: Korean Stalemate, Red Scare, loss of China, advisor scandals made re-election for truman unlikely.

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961; Republican)

Election of 1952: Truman’s presidency concluded with Americans looking for the end of the Korean War and political scandals—this pushed them towards Republican candidates. Many liked “Ike” who was a conservative war hero.
Checkers Speech: When Eisenhower’s running mate Richard Nixon was accused of using campaign funds for personal use, he went on television with his dog, Checkers, to tug at the heartstrings of Americans—this secured his near political future.
Domestic Policies: Emphasized power of authority. He filled his cabinet with corporate execs to give his administration a “businesslike tone”
Example: His Sec of Def was Charles Wilson, the former head of General Motors
Modern Republicanism: Eisenhower was a fiscal conservative but a moderate on social issues, accepting and readily extending New Deal Programs. Social Security was extended, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare was built, and the first woman was appointed to a cabinet. Yet, Eisenhower's opposed federal education aid and health care.
Interstate Highway System: Authorized 42k miles of interstate highways that linked all major cities.
Justification for new taxes on fuel, tires, and vehicles was in the favor of national defense
Created jobs, promoted trucking, accelerated suburbian growth, and increased culture homogeneity
Hurt environment however, and took attention off of public transportation
Eisenhower Prosperity: The economy was growing at a heavy rate during Eisenhower;s presidency as Americans had more disposable income than ever, deficits fell, and inflation was negligible.
Election of 1956: After suffering from a heart attack, democrats questioned his ability to lead for 4 more years but the 4 years of prosperity brought under Ike’s campaign made him more popular than ever
Dulles Diplomacy (Secretary of State): Looked at Truman’s policy as too passive taking a new stance that took initiative in challenging the Soviet Union and China. Sought to liberate Eastern European countries and for Taiwan to fight back against “red” China. Even if it meant bringing communist countries close to war, they would back down due to US nuclear supremacy; Brinkmanship
Massive Retaliation (Dulles): Dulles placed attention on greater reliance of nukes and air power, and less on army and navy: “bang for the buck” Would help balance federal budget and increase pressure on enemies. 1953 development of the Hydrogen bomb in America was caught up to by the Soviets within the same year. Led to concept of mutual extinction: this weapons prevented all out wars, but not small brushfire wars in developing nations
Decolonization: Britain, France, and the Netherlands lost power throughout this time period as their colonial holdings revolted against them.
Covert Action: Eisenhower increasingly used covert action, intervening undercover in politics of other nations instead of sending troops to interfere. For instance, the CIA overthrow of a government in Iran that try to nationalize the holding of foreign oil companies and CIA overthrow of a Guatemalan government that threatened American businesses worked to use this.
Korean Armistice: Eisenhower visited US forces in Korea to understand war better
The threat of nukes, and the death of Stalin pushed China and NK to create an armistice
Most US troops were withdrawn

Korea Stays divided

Fall of Indochina: After losing Indochina, the French tried to retake it—this led to resistance by native Vietnamese and Cambodians. Ho Chi Minh’s Viet Minj guerrillas aided by the Soviet Union fought against a southern anticommunist power that was supported by the United States.
Division of Vietnam: The Geneva conference stated that Vietnam would be divided at the 17th parallel until elections were to be held. The north was controlled by communist Ho Chi Minh and the south, an anticommunist government controlled by a Ngo Dinh Diem whose supporters included catholics and urban Vietnamese people who fled from northern communism. General election were never held as South feared that north would win. Eisenhower began sent over 1 billion dollars to help souther war efforts in order to prevent spread of communism justifying this acts via the Domino Theory
SEATO: South Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia:
Dulles put together a defense pact called SEATO for the SE countries: was signed by US, GB, France, Austrailia, NZ, Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan
Israel: This country was formed in 1948 under UN auspices after a civil war in Palestine left the land split between Israelis and Palestinians
Suez Crisis: Arab General Gamal Nasser from Egypt asked the United States for funding to build a dam project on the Nile. Next, they turned to the Soviet Union, who agreed to provide some funding for the project. To get more funds, Nasser seized the British-French Suez Canal that passed through Egypt. Eventually, Britain-France-Israel retook the canal against Egypt
Eisenhower Doctrine: US became leading Western influence in Middle East, but Soviets had growing influence in Egypt and Syria
Eisenhower doctrine pledged economic and military aid to any Middle Eastern country that was threated by Communism.
First used this when he sent 14k marines to Lebanon to stop a civil war between Christians and Muslims
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela formed this organization to control oil prices as a foreign policy strategy.
Spirit of Geneva: US and USSR began showing interest in wanting to de escalate cold war tensions so USSR removed troops from Austria and made peace with Turkey and Greece. US proposed open sky plan, allowed each other to use aerial drones to inspect each other, that was rejected. Speech by the new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev (1956) further de escalated tensions surrounding the Cold War.
Hungarian Revolt (1956): A popular uprising in Hungary succeeded to overthrow the USSR in the region, leading to a liberal government that wanted to leave the Warsaw Pact. Soviets sent in tanks to quell the rebellion, and the United States did not intervene
Sputnik Shock of 1957: USSR launched first two satellites, Sputnik 1 and 2
Embarassed the US technology, and future US rockets attempted to achieve the same goal failed
Second Berlin Crisis: Khrushchev asserted control over the entirety of Berlin and told the Allied powers to clear out in six months, but Eisenhower defused the situation by inviting Khrushchev to a presidential retreat
U-2 Incident: Russia shot down US spy plane that resulted in them denouncing the US and pulling out of the Paris summit
Communism in Cuba: Loss of Cuba to Communism
Fidel Castro overthrew the preceding Cuban Dictator in 1959
He nationalized American-owned businesses + properties
Eisenhower retaliated by cutting of US trade w Cuba, so Castro turned to USSR. Set up a Communist Totalitarian State. Eisenhower authorized CIA to train Cuban exiles to retake Cuba, but was left up to JFK
Military-Industrial Complex: Eisenhower wanted to “guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence … by the military-industrial complex.” Essentially, he did not want the United States to spiral into militarism.
Brown v Board: found that separate but equal was inherently unconstitutional and violated the 14th amendments “equal protection” clause: should be ended with all deliberate speed
Resistance in the South: 101 members of congress signed the Souther Manifesto stating that congress was abusing its power. States began closing public schools and setting up private schools, the KKK made a comeback, Arkansas government used its military to prevent 9 African American students from attending school with the US federal troops being sent to support them. By 1964, ten years after the Supreme Court decision, less than 2 percent of blacks in the South attended integrated schools.
Montgomery Bus Boycott: Rosa Parks refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger led to her jailing—this event sparked amny African American protests by boycotting city buses. MLK emerged as a leader during the nonviolent movement against segregation.
Civil Rights Laws of 1957 and 1960: created a permanent Civil Rights Commission and gave the Justice Department power to protect voting rights of blacks (obstructive tactics in the south still used)
Nonviolent Protests: MLK formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) which brought churches into ther civil rights struggle. Sit ins occurred starting in Greensboro, North Carolina. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was developed to keep movement organized
Used Sit-in tactics for restaurant, hotels, buildings, libraries, pools, and transportation for integration
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Commitee (SNCC): This was formed to keep the nonviolent movement organized.
Immigration Loosening: Congress dropped bans on Chinese and other Asian immigrants and eliminated race as a barrier to naturalization
Braceros: Mexicans were given the choice to join this program as a legal immigrant or cross the border illegal. Responding to compaints, the United States launched Operation Wetback to return millions back to Mexico.
Consumer Culture and Conformity: Television usage rose with 1 for every 3.3 Americans. Aired situation comedies, westerns, quiz shows, and professional sports. Critics such as FCC chairman Newton Minnow expressed concerns about TV usage for children.
Advertising: Aggressive advertisements of named brands alongside suburban shopping centers and the plastic credit card in the 1950s provided a quick means of satisfying them. Fast food chains and franchise operations dominated
Paperbacks and Records: The 1960s saw a surge in paperback book sales and a music revolution driven by affordable LP albums and 45 rpm records, with rock-and-roll, epitomized by Elvis Presley, captivating teenagers nationwide.
Corporate America: In the 1950s, conglomerates emerged, dominating industries like food processing, hotels, transportation, insurance, and banking, while white-collar jobs outnumbered blue-collar ones for the first time. Corporate culture emphasized conformity and teamwork, epitomized by the dress code outlined by William Whyte in "The Organization Man" (1956), while unions grew in power and conservatism, reflecting the rise of middle-class incomes and aspirations for suburban affluence among Americans.
Religion: Organized religions expanded after WW2
Will Herberg wrote Protestant, Catholic, Jew and commented on new religious tolerance
Women’s Roles: The post-World War II baby boom and suburban living made homemaking a predominant role for many women, reinforced by societal norms and popular literature like Dr. Benjamin Spock's "Baby and Child Care" (1946), while growing dissatisfaction, particularly among educated middle-class women, led to increased female workforce participation despite prevailing gender biases and lower wages.
Social Critics: not everybody approved of social trends
The Lonely Crowd (1958) David Riesman criticized the rise of conformists.
Affluent Society (1958) John Kenneth Galbraith wrote how wealthy Americans failed to increase spending for social good
White Collar (1951) and The Power Elite (1956): both by Sociologist Wright Mills: shows dehumanizing aspects of corporate world and threats to freedom respectively
Novels: Individual struggle vs conformity
JD Salinger wrote about phoniness from POV of a troubled teenager in The Catcher in the Rye
Catch 22 (1961) satirized military and war
Beatniks: rebellious writers and intellectuals
Advocated spontaneity, use of drugs, and rebellion against society

John F. Kennedy Democratic

Election of 1960: Eisenhower’s popularity was not transferred to Nixon, who was not as personable on television as the youthful John F. Kennedy, who won. This was the start of televised political debates, where Kennedy attacked the Eisenhower administration for falling behind in the Cold War. Kennedy’s victory brought many questions by Nixon and other Republicans about the validity of the election results.
New Frontier Programs: With the nation moving into a New Frontier, Kennedy called for aid to education, federal support of healthcare, urban renewal, and civil rights. Still, his domestic programs did not last in Congress.
Peace Corps: An organization that recruited young American volunteers to give technical aid to developing countries
Alliance for Progress: supported land reform and economic development in Latin America
Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961): Kennedy approved a CIA scheme to overthrow Fidel Castro by landing at the Bay of Pigs and starting an uprising—yet, the Cuban revolt failed and had to surrender after U.S. forces were not sent in to rescue them
Trade Expansion Act (1962): authorized tariff reductions with the newly formed European Economic Community (Common Market) of West Europe
Berlin Wall: Kennedy and Khrushchev met in Vienna where Khrushchev attempted to scare Kennedy by forcing the allies to leave Berlin. Khrushchev responded by putting up a wall around East Germany to prevent them from going to West Germany in 1961. Kennedy returned in 1963 exclaiming how democracy has never had to put up a wall to keep its people
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Russians were building sites in Cuba for the launching of offensive missiles that could reach the United States in minutes. A full scale nuclear war seemed likely if Soviets challenged a U.S. naval blockade that was established in response to the discovery of these missile sites. After a couple of contentious days, Kennedy pledged not to invade the island nation and to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey.
Flexible Response: Kennedy and McNamara increased spending on conventional arms in response to various "brush-fire wars" starting away from Dulles idea. Flexible Response reduced risk of nuclear weapons but increased the temptation to send elite special forces, such as the Green Berets, into combat all over the globe.
Kennedy’s Assassination: He died from a gunshot in Dallas, Texas by what is thought to be Lee Harvey Oswald

Lyndon B. Johnson Democratic

LBJ’s Great Society: LBJ took his presidential oath aboard a plane, deciding to expand on the social reforms of the New Deal, persuading Congress to pass an expanded version of Kennedy’s civil rights bill and proposal for an income tax cut. There was a relevant increase in jobs, consumer spending, and economic expansion in the 1960s.
War on Poverty: Inspired by Michael Harringtons The Other America (1961), which brought attention to Americans still living in poverty, LBJ declared an unconditional war on poverty in 1964
Office of Economic Opportunity: Antipoverty agency with a billion dollar budget. Sponsored a variety of self-help program for poor
Head Start: preschoolers schooling (didnt work for indigenous)
Job Corps: Vocational training
Literacy programs, legal services
Community Action Program: allowed communities to hold their own antipoverty program
Did reduce the number of impoverished American families before it was cut off for Vietnam War
Election of 1964: LBJ + Senator Hubert Humphrey had liberal agenda. Republicans chose conservative Senator Barry Goldwater, who argued for ending welfare, including Tennessee Valley Authority and Social Security
Democrafts made a tv ad that shows goldwaters as an extremist who would cause nuclear war
Goldwaters compaign still introduced new conservative voices (Reagan)
Food Stamp Act (1964): Expanded the federal program to help poor people buy food
National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities (1965): Provided federal funding for the arts and for creative and scholarly projects
Medicare (1965): Provided health insurance for all people 65 and older
Medicaid (1965): Provided funds to states to pay for medical care for
the poor and disabled
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965): Provided federal funds to poor school districts; funds for special education programs; and funds to expand Head Start, an early childhood education program
Higher Education Act (1965): Provided federal scholarships for post-secondary education
Immigration Act (1965): Abolished discriminatory quotes based on national origins
Child Nutrition Act (1966): Added breakfasts to the school lunch program
Other Programs: Congress increased funding for mass transit, public housing, rent subsidies for low-income people and crime prevention. Established two new cabinet departments Department of Transportation (DOT), and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Congress also passed regulations for automobile industry responding to book Unsafe at Any Speed. Clean air and water laws were enacted (Response to Silent Spring) with increased federal parks and wilderness areas. LBJs wife contributed to improved environment with her Beauty America campaign which resulted in the Highway Beautification Act that removed billboards from federal roads
Evaluating the Great Society: Critics attack by saying it set unrealistic expectations for elimination poverty as it was inefficient and very costly. Defenders said that these were much needed improvements for the impoverished, disabled, and elderly, people who had been neglected before
Civil Rights Acts (1964-1965): The first of two civil rights acts illegalized segregation in all public facilities and introduced the desegregation of schools, while the second “Voting Rights Act of 1965” ended literacy tests and barriers to black voting.
James Meredith: A young African American air force veteran that tried to enroll in the University of Mississippi, where a federal court guaranteed his right to attend. Kennedy sent in 400 federal marshals and 3,000 troops to control violence against his right to attend class.
George Wallace: He tried to stop an African American student from entering the University of Alabama, but troops were sent to the scene to mitigate.
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr: He was recognized as the national leader of the African American civil rights movement who was jailed in Birmingham, Alabama for conducting an illegal march—he was believed by many to have been jailed unjustly, and his words inspired the strength of the civil rights movement
March on Washington 1953: largest and most successful demonstration in US history. About 200k blacks and whites participated in this Civil Rights Protest
I Have A Dream
Ended with everyone singing We Shall Overcome
March to Montgomery (Bloody Sunday) : A voting right march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama was met with police retaliation using tear gas and beatings—the televised violence proved as a turning point in the civil rights movement as this sparked public outrage with the treatment of African Americans, from which point federal troops were sent in to protect King.
Black Muslims and Malcom X: Elijah Muhammad preached black nationalism, separatism, and self improvement
EM adopted the name Malcom X and became extremely controversial.
Criticized MLK as subservient to white people and advocated for black violence against white violence
Was assassinated by other black opponents in 1964
Race Riots and Black Power:
Student Non Violent Coordinating Committee
Congress of Racial Equality
Stokely Carmichael advocated for black power and racial separatism
Black Panthers: Huey Newton, Bobby Seale: revolutionary socialist movement advocating for self rule
Riots: After the Voting Rights Act of 1965, a young black motorist was arrested by white police in the black neighborhood: led to a riot that killed 34 people and destroyed 700 bioldings
Slogans “Burn baby burn” and “Get whitey”
Was believed to be stemming from the Black Power Movement
Murder in Memphis: MLK got nobel prize but was assassinated by by a white man shooting him.
Led to massive riots in 168 cities and 46 people dead
“White backlash” to the civil rights movement
Warren Court: Early Warren as chief justice of the Supreme Court had heavy impacts on the nation through his decisions in the desegregation case of Brown. V Board of Education of Topeka. While before his tenure the focus was on protecting property rights, then and after it was more about individual rights
Mapp v. Ohio (1961): ruled that illegally seized evidence cannot be used in court against the accused
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): required that state courts provide counsel (services of an attorney) for indigent (poor) defendants.
Escobedo v. Illinois (1964): required the police to inform an arrested person of his or her right to remain silent.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966): extended the ruling in Escobedo to include the right to a lawyer being present during questioning by the police.
Reapportionment: Landmark case of Baker v. Carr (1962) established the principle of “one man, one vote,” forcing election districts to be redrawn to provide equal representation for all citizens
Yates v. United States (1957): said that the 1st amendment protected radical and revolutionary speech (even by Communists) unless it presented clear danger to the country
Engel v. Vitale (1962): ruled that the state laws requiring prayers and Bible readings in the public schools violated the 1st Amendment's provision to o soe
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): ruled that. In recognition of a citizen’s right to privacy, a state could not prohibit the use of contraceptives in adults.
Student Movement and the New Left: Students for Democratic Society led by Tom Hayden issued a statement that UNiversity decisions should be made through a participatory democracy so that students would have a voice in decision affecting their lives. Those who supported this became known as the New Left. In 1964, the Free Speech Movement began at UC Berkeley, sparking nationwide student protests against university restrictions. These protests expanded to address social rules and demand greater student involvement in university governance, escalating with the Vietnam War into widespread campus disruptions. SDS extremist known as Weathermen used vandalism in their attacks discrediting early idealism of the New Left
Counterculture: practically hippies
Musicians: Joan Baez and Bob Dylan, Beatles, Rolling Stones, Jim Morrison, Janis Joplin
Woodstock Music Festival: zenith of counterculture
Hella drug use 😆
Sexual Revolution: Alfred Kinsey did research and found the premarital sex, marital infidelyity, and homosexuality were much more common than expected. Medicine for STDS and contraceptive led to changing attitudes about casual sex
Sex became a consumer product due to sexual themes in media
1980s had a reaction against these loosened moral codes as it led to more illegitimate births, rape, sexual abuse, and AIDS
The Women’s Movement: Betty Friedan’s book The Feminine Mystique gave the movement a new direction encouraging middle-class women to seek fulfillment in careers. 1966, Friedan helped found the National Organization for Women adopting activists tactics of other civil rights movements to secure equal treatment of women for job opportunities.
Equal Pay Act (1963) & Civil Rights Act (1964): Prohibited discrimination in employment and compensation on the basis of gender but was poorly enforced
Campaign for the ERA: In 1972 Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment that stated the equality of rights under the law should not be denied by any state on account of sex but it didn’t get passed because of a growing reaction against feminism by conservatives who feared the movement threatened the traditional roles of women
Achievements: women began moving into professions previously dominated by men: business, law, medicine, and politics.
Vietnam Buildup under Kennedy: Kennedy adopted Eisenhower’s domino theory, opting to quickly convert Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia into anticommunist territory. By 1963, there were more than 16,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam with no support from the country.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: LBJ administration didnt give much support to South Vietnam. August 1964, LBJ took action and used a naval incident in Gulf of Tonkin to authorize US forces in combat (alleged) NV boats fired on US warships. Congress gave president the ability to take “all necessary measures” to protect US interests in Vietnam. Called illegal war as congress didnt actually officially authorize
Escalating the War: US military and foreign policy advisers wanted to expand Vietnam operations
Operation Rolling Thunder: prolonged air attacked using B-52s against North Vietnam
April was the first time US combat troops were used
By the end of 1965, over 184k troops were in Vietnam
Hoped to win a war of attrition: Used search and destroy tactics (alienated Vietnamese citizens)
By end of 1967, over 485k troops were in Vietnam, 16k were dead
General William Westmoreland, commander of US forces in Vietnam, said he could see the light at the end of the tunnel
Controversy: misinformation, reluctance to speak, and costs of war created a credibility gap.
Even the inner gov didn’t believe in the war: Robert McNamara concluded that the leaders in Washington failed to understand the enemy and war
Hawks v Doves: Hawks supported the war, and believe that it was the Soviets who were aggroing NV against SV
Doves viewed the war as a civil war
Opposition to the war was caused by costs in money and lives: Money could have been spent on internal problems
College students who were eligible to be drafted after graduation created the most Opposition
Tet Offensive (Lunar New Year): Viecong attacked all capitals in SV and American base. US Military successfully counterattacked, and recovered territory
Lots of destruction caused by this led to bolster anti-war sentiments
LBJ Ends Escalation: Joint Chief of States responded to Tet by sending 200k more troops, but Johnson went on tv and voewed to limit bombing of NV and negotiate for peace, and then announced how he was not going to run again
May 1968: Peace talks between NV and SV: deadlocked over minor issues, leading to x10ks more deaths.
Second Kennedy Assassination: JFKS brother become a senator for NY. Entered presidential race, but was shot and killed Arab nationalist who opposed Kennedys support for JFK
Election of 1968: Three way between George Wallace, Nixon, and Hubert Humphrey
Democratic Convention at Chicago:Hubert Humphrey was clearly having enough to win the nomination
Richard Daley, Chicagos mayor, sent police out, and the violence became known as a police riot
White Backlash and George Wallace: growing hostility from white people of federal segregation, antiwar protests, race riots
Wallace fought against the liberals (pointy head liberals) and ran for president under American Independent Party
Nixon: Became front runner for Republicans: selected Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland (similar mindset to wallace)
Nixon was a “hawk” for Vietnam War and wanted “peace with honor and law and order”

Richard Nixon

Vietnamization: Nixon’s immediate goal was to reduce U.S. involvement with the Vietnam war by withdrawing troops from Vietnam without looking like they lost (“peace with honor”). Nixon gave the South Vietnamese the money, the weapons, and the training that they needed to take over the full conduct of the war.
Nixon Doctrine: declaring that in the future Asian allies would receive U.S. support but without the extensive use of U.S. ground forces.
Opposition to Nixon’s War Policy: Antiwar protests reduced due to Nixon’s withdrawal, but he attempted to invade Cambodia to destroy those communist bases, leading to nationwide protests. Killings at Kent State in Ohio and Jackson State in Mississippi created public outcry. Gulf of Tonkin resolution was repealed
Public Outcry against Vietnam: Also in 1970, the American public was shocked to learn about a 1968 massacre of women and children by U.S. troops in the Vietnamese village of My Lai. Further fueling the antiwar sentiment was the publication by the New York Times of the Pentagon Papers, a secret government history documenting the mistakes and deceptions of government policy-makers in dealing with Vietnam. The papers had been turned over, or "leaked," to the press by Daniel Ellsberg, a former Defense Department analyst.
Peace Talks: Kissinger conducted secret meetings with North Vietnam’s minister, announcing “peace is at hand” prematurely. When an agreement could not be reached, Nixon ordered a massive bombing of North Vietnam until the matter was settled. After weeks, the North Vietnamese agreed to release prisoners of war and conduct an armistice. Yet the armistice did not end the war between North and South Vietnam.
Public View of Nixon’s Foreign Policy: Their diplomacy was praised for bringing about détente, a deliberate reduction of Cold War tensions. Even after Watergate ended his presidency in disgrace, Nixon's critics would admit that his conduct of foreign affairs had enhanced world peace.
Visit to China: As an outspoken critic of communism, he tried to improve diplomatic relations with Communist China by taking a trip to Beijing to meet with Mao—and the U.S. would eventually recognize them in 1979.
Arms Control with the U.S.S.R.: With his improved diplomatic relationship with China, he sought to improve the relationship with the Soviets to limit nuclear warheads through SALT I.
SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks): Soviets froze the number of ballistic missiles carrying nuclear warheads.
Nixon’s Congress: Both the House of Representatives and Senate were controlled by Democrats, making it difficult for Republican partisan legislation to get through Congress and for Democrat legislation to pass by Nixon. Yet Nixon’s changes would set the stage for a new conservatism that the American people would resonate with.
Stagnation: A recessional period starting in the 1970s had an unusual combination of economic slowdown and high inflation.
Nixon’s Economic Policies: To combat stagflation, Nixon initially tried to cut federal spending—he quickly switched to Keynesian economics, deficit spending, taking the dollar off the gold standard, and a 10% surtax on all imports. These changes brough the U.S. economy back to full functionality by the election year of 1972.
Title IX: A measure to end sex discrimination in schools that receive federal funding.
Southern Strategy: Nixon aimed to appeal to the largest voter base possible by calling to millions of voters disgruntled by antiwar protests, black militants, school desegregation, and youth counterculture who he referred to as the silent majority of southern whites, northern Catholic blue-collar workers, and suburbanites disagreeing with the liberal drift of the Republicans. By delaying integration plans, busing orders, and allowing Vice President Spiro Agnew to verbally assault war protesters, Southern white voters fell towards Nixon.
The Burger Court: Nixon replaced liberal justices of the Supreme Court with more conservative members—such as Warren E. Burger of Minnesota. In 1971, the court ordered busing to achieve racial balance in schools. In 1972 it issues strict guidelines that made the death penalty difficult to execute. In 1973, it ruled against abortion in Roe v. Wade, a heavily controversial decision with conservatives.
Election of 1972: Nixon’s reelection was assured by his foreign policy successes in China and the Soviet Union, the removal of populist George Wallace by a bullet, and a far left anti war/anti establishment George McGovern. With Nixon’s landslide victory, he was forming a new Republic majority of Sunbelt and suburban voters.
War Powers Act: 3,500 secret bombing raids in a neutral country, Cambodia, reduced Nixon’s Popularity. So, Congress passed legislation over Nixon’s veto to necessitate that Congress reports within 48 hours after any military action. It also necessitated Congressional approval for military actions lasting longer than 60 days.
October War (1973): The Syrians and Egyptians launched a surprise attack on Israel on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur to regain lands lost in the 1967 Six Day War. Nixon would support Israel in the conflict, leading to the battle quickly shifting to the Israelis.
Oil Embargo (1973): U.S. support of Israel cost them greatly due to an oil embargo placed by OPEC, resulting in a worldwide oil shortage and long gas station lines in the United States. Inflation, the loss of manufacturing jobs, and lower standard of living had come back to the United States—all of this caused Nixon’s popularity to decline.
Watergate Scandal: The public humiliation of Richard Nixon and the jailing of 16 White House officials and aides due to a scandal involving the reelection president Nixon.
White House Abuses: Nixon’s reelection committee named the Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP) was caught breaking into the Democratic national headquarters in the Watergate complex in Washington D.C. to add wiretaps and bugs. However, even before there were a series of wiretaps, burglaries, and investigations ordered by Nixon. For instance, he had an enemies list with prominent opps to Nixon—he asked the IRS to investigate their taxes and whatnot to see if he could jail them for something.
Watergate Investigation: The discovery of a taping system in the Oval Office led to a yearlong struggle between Nixon that claimed “executive privilege of the tapes” and investigators who claimed obstruction of justice if the tapes were not handed over. Impeachment hearings caused Nixon to reveal some transcriptions. One such tape suspiciously had an 18.5 minute long gap in between, essentially proving his guilt in the coverup under obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and the contempt of Congress.
Resignation of Nixon: After it seemed there was no way for him to win the Watergate battle, he resigned on August 9, 1974 and Gerald Ford took charge of the presidency.

Gerald Ford (1974-1977; Republican)

Pardoning of Nixon: Ford lost public support after fully pardoning Nixon with the intentions of wanting to end the “national nightmare” instead of prolonging it
Investigating the CIA: Democratic Congress searched for abuses in the executive branch especially in the CIA being accused of engineering assassination of foreign leaders such as the Marxist president of Chile. Ford appointed Texas Congressman George HW Bush to reform the agency
Fall of Saigon: April 1975, the US supported government in Saigon, Vietnam fell to the enemy and became subjected to communist rule. US was able to evacuate 150k Vietnamese who had supported the US and now faced certain persecution. Marked a lot point on American prestige overseas and confidence at home
Genocide in Cambodia: Khmer Rogue, a radical communist faction that killed over a million of its own people to ride the country of western influence. 10 million refugees between cambodia and vietnam fled to the US
Future of SE Asia: Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia emerged as the “little tigers” of the vigorously growing Asian economy as some argued US support for South Vietnam allowed time for other nations to develop and combat communism on their own
Economy and Domestic Policy: Concern with bringing inflation under control urging voluntary measures from business and consumers through the Whip Inflation Now buttons. Inflation increased and unemployment rate reached more than 9%. Ford agreed to a Democratic package to stimulate the economy vetoing other Democratic bills.
Bicentennial Celebration: 200th birthday put watergate, vietnam, and lackluster presidency of Gerald Ford behind them
Election of 1976: Ford beat out Reagen for republican spot but lost to Jimmy Carter (Democrat) who ran as an outsider against the corruption in Washington. Won a close election by carrying most of the South. Democrats also won strong majorities in both Congress houses

Jimmy Carter

Jimmy Carter's informal presidency aimed to break from the imperial image, but his reliance on inexperienced advisors and micromanagement led to perceptions of being an outsider, with critics noting his attention to detail sometimes obscured broader perspectives, earning him the nickname "leaf man."
Human Rights Diplomacy: Appointed Andrew Young, an African American, to serve as the US ambassador to the UN who alongside Carter championed the cause of human rights around the world opposing oppression of black majority in Africa with carter also cutting off aid to governments of argentina and Chile as they violated human rights
Panama Canal: After debate, senate ratified the treaty in 1978 that saw the slow transition of control over the canal to the Panamanians which happened in 2000
Camp David Accords (1978): Jimmy Carter's presidency saw a significant achievement in brokering the Camp David Accords in 1978, where Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin negotiated under Carter's mediation, leading to Egypt becoming the first Arab nation to recognize Israel in exchange for Israel's withdrawal from Sinai, marking a pivotal step towards peace in the Middle East despite opposition from the Palestine Liberation Organization and much of the Arab world.
Iran and the Hostage Crisis: Overthrow of the shah in Iran by Islamic fundamentalists in 1979 led to a halt in oil production, causing global shortages and price increases. The subsequent seizure of the U.S. embassy in Tehran by Iranian militants, resulting in the hostage crisis that lasted throughout Carter's presidency, highlighted American impotence in dealing with the situation, culminating in a failed rescue mission and contributing to perceptions of Carter's presidency as unsuccessful.
Cold War: Continued Nixon-Ford policy of detente with China and the Soviet Union ending its official recognition of Taiwan in 1979 and exchanging ambassadors with China.
SALT II Treaty: Limited size of each superpower’s nuclear delivery system but the Senate never ratified the treaty as a result of a renewal of Cold War tensions over Afghanistan where the USSR invaded Afghanistan. US retaliated by placing an embargo on grain exports and sale of high tech to the USSR and boycotting the 1980 Olympics in Moscow forcing carter to start buildup in arms
Domestic Policy: Biggest issue was growing inflation rate with carter trying to check inflation with measures aimed at conserving oil energy and reviving the US coal industry. Compromises in congress failing to reduce the consumption of oil or to check inflation
Troubled Economy: Inflation slowed economic growth. Chairman of Federal Reserve Board, Paul Volcker tried to break the inflation by pushing the inflation rates to 20% greatly hurting automobile and building industries forcing them to lay of workers. Inflation pushed middle-class taxpayers into higher tax brackets leading to “taxpayers” revolt. In 1980, government social programs indexed to inflation contributed to a nearly $60 billion federal deficit, leading many Americans to face the reality of declining living standards for the first time since World War II.
Loss of Popularity: Iranian hostage crisis and worsening economic crisis hurt Carter with many AMericans blaming Carter as his approval rating fell to only 23%.
Social Changes: American fastest growing age group consisted of senior citizens and with minority groups making up 25% of the population
Growth of Immigration: Immigrants shifted from Europe and Canada to Latin America and Asia.
Undocumented Immigrants: Rising number of undocumented immigrants wit the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 penalizing employers who hired undocumented immigrants
Hispanic Americans: Post-World War II, Hispanic Americans saw demographic shifts, with new arrivals settling in the East and Midwest. Exploited Mexican workers gained collective bargaining rights in 1975 under Cesar Chavez, and activists secured bilingual education mandates. By the 1980s, Hispanic Americans were increasingly elected to public office, becoming the largest minority group in the U.S. by 2000.
American Indian Movement: In response to failed assimilation attempts, the American Indian Movement (AIM) emerged in 1968, advocating for self-determination and tribal revival. Successes included the passage of the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975, granting reservations more control, and legal victories reclaiming land. Legislation like the Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act of 1978 aimed to tackle unemployment and poverty on reservations, while cultural resurgence saw increased Native American self-identification by the 2010 census
Asian Americans: By the 1980s, Asian Americans emerged as the fastest-growing ethnic minority, with Chinese being the largest group followed by Filipinos, Japanese, Indians, Koreans, and Vietnamese. Despite strong educational attainment, they faced discrimination, envy, and Japan-bashing, while less educated immigrants earned below the national average.
Gay Liberation Movement:
The 1969 Stonewall Inn raid ignited the gay rights movement, leading to an end to discrimination. By the mid-1970s, homosexuality was no longer classified as a mental illness, and the federal Civil Service lifted its ban on employing homosexuals. In 1993, "don't ask, don't tell" policy allowed privacy but still risked expulsion if one's sexual identity was discovered.
Environmental Movement: The modern environmental movement, unlike its Progressive era predecessor, gained widespread support, with 20 million participants in the first Earth Day in 1970 reflecting growing concerns over pollution and habitat destruction. Media coverage of industrial disasters, such as oil spills and nuclear accidents, fueled public apprehension about the consequences of unchecked industrialization and technology.
Protective Legislation: The environmental movement successfully advocated for legislation in the 1970s, including the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and Endangered Species Act, establishing regulations for pollution control and habitat protection. The creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Superfund in 1970 and 1980 respectively addressed cleanup efforts for toxic waste sites like Love Canal.
Conservative Shift: Protest movements in diverse segments of American society, coupled with economic downturns and declining living standards, intensified social tension and division. A conservative backlash against liberal policies, notably the New Deal and Great Society, gained momentum in the late 1970s, shaping politics in the following decade.

Ronald Reagan

The Election of 1980:

Reagen attacked dems for expanding gov and undermining US Prestige

Pointed misery index of 28

Asked audience “are you better off now than you were four years ago?”

Took more than 50% of blue collar vote

Republicans gained working majority in Congress

Reaganomics:

Campaign to fix the economic mess
Said that the causes were: undue tax burden, excessive government regulation, and massive social spending
This would lead to increased production, jobs, and prosperity
Economic Recovery Act of 1981: 25% decrease in income tax (3 years)
Corporate income tax cuts, capital gains tax cut, and gift and inheritance tax cuts led much of tax relief to be sent towards higher income taxpayers
Small investors: allows for 2k/year investments into Individual Retirement Accounts wo tax

Foreign Policy under Reagan:

Cold War: characterized by increased defense spending and aid for anti communisism forces

Spent millions to build new weapons (B-1 bomber, MIX missile, us navy from 450-600 ships)
Strategic Defense Initiative: high tech lasers and particle beams to destory enemey missles (criticized as Star Wars, costly, and would escalate Arm Race)
Defense budget went from 171 bil to 300 bil
Reagan supported “Friendly” dictators in Americas. Sandanistas in Nicaragua overthrew dictator: America gave military aid to defeat the Sandinistas. Nicaragua passed Boland Amendment, stopping more aid
In El Salvador: Reagan administration spent 5 bil to protect gov against guerillas. Death squads connected to El Salvador Army killed 40k, which was protested by Americans
Grenada: A coup in Grenada created a pro-CUban regime. Reagan ordered marines to invade to prevent a communist military base
Iran Contra Affair: Reagan + team sold US antitank and anti-aircraft missiles to Iran to fight against Iraq as long as theyd free hostage Americas. Reagan team member used profits in Iran arms deal to fund Nicaragua. Reagan denied knowledge of this
Lebanan, Israel, PLO: Israel + Us support invaded Lebanon to prevent Palestinian terrorists from entering Israel. Aril 1983, a suicide squad bombed the US embassy in beiut and killed 63 people. Months later, another terroist drove bombs into the Marins Barracks, killing 241 people. In 1984, Reagan pulled US fores out
Sec of State George Schultz argued for peaceful settlement by giving PLO a homeland

Soviet Relations:

Intensified due to Reagan Arms and soviet buildup of missiles
Mikhail Gorbachev tried to change soviet demostic policies: Glasnost (openness) was to end political repression and allow citizens greater political freedom. Perestroika was to restructure the economy by introducing free market policy
Reagan challenged: “Mr Gorbachev, tear down this [Berlin] wall”
INF agreement: G and R aggreed to destroy all mid range missle
G pulled out soviet troops from Afghanistan, and helped US to put pressure to end the war in Iran and Iraq

The Election of 1984 Significances:

Jesse Jackson became first African American politician to make a strong run for presidency by seeking minotirty support through National Rainbow Coalition
Democrafts chose vp to be Geraldine Ferraro, first woman to run for vice president on a major party

The Election of 1988:

Democrats regained Senate Control in 1986
Bush (HW) said democrats are soft on crime and weak on naional defense: alo promised to raise taxes

George H. W. Bush

End of Cold War/Collapse of the Soviet Union:

Tiananmen Square: predemocratic student protest for freedom in Beijing:Broadcast around the world:CC gov killed protests with tank
Eastern Europe: Gorbachev stopped supporting commie states in Europe. Poland was the first to get rid of Communism: then Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania.East Germany commies were forced out of power after tearing down of the berlin Wall. both germanies then united
Breakup of Soviet: Soviet baltic republics of Estonia latvia and Lithuaniadeclared independence. After a failled coup, remaining republics dissolved. President of Russian Republic, Boris Yeltsin created Commonwealth of Independent States
Bush and G signed START 1: reduce number of nukes to <10000. Start 2 (Bush and Yeltsin) reduced to <3000, and offered US economic help to Russia

Persian Gulf War:

Saddam Hussein invaded oil rich Kuwait, threatening western oil sources. Bush got UN to pressure withdrawal, but had little effect

Bush got congressional approval for military force
Desert Storm: 500k soldiers + 28 different countries’ military force. Airstrikes for ~5 weeks and 100 hours of ground fighting, Iraq surrended

Domestic Policies under Bush:

Nomination of ClarenceThomas: replaced Thurgood Marshall. CT was very conservative and had sexual harassment charges, angering African Americans and women
Taxes and the Economy: gov intervention to save week savings and loan institutions (S and L) would cost taxpayers > 250 billion. Republicans felt betrayed after Bush went back on his word and created 133 bil worth of taxes, increasing top income rate to 31% (beer, wine, cigs, gas, luxury cars, yachts)

. Recession startging from 1990 increase unemployment, decreased average family income, and hurt Bushes re-election prospects

The Election of 1992:

Bill Clinton: first baby boomer to get nominated
Presented himself as a moderate democrat whow as focused on economic issues, jobs, education, and healthcare
Known to his advisers “its the economy stupid!”
H Ross Perot: Texas billionaire, appealed to eople on TV commericals with anti-washington + anti-deficit views

Bill Clinton

First term accomplishments & Republican Congress:

Family and medical Leave Act and motor-voter law: enabled citizens to registr to vote as they get their driver licenses.
Brady Handgun bill: mandated a five day waiting period between hand gun purchase
Clinton Anti-crime Bill 30 bil for funding more police protection and crime prevention programs, and banned most Assault rifles, angering National Rifle Association
Passed a deciit reducation budget that included 255 bil in spending cuts and 241 bil in tax increases
North American Free Trade Agreements: free trade zone with Canada and Mexico
Nicknamed Slick Willie

Technology Boom:

Personal computers, software, internet, cable, wireless communications
E commerce
US inflation stayed below 3%
Record gains of >22 percent of retturns
One in 14 housheolds became worth more than 1 mil
Unemployment went from 7.5 to 3.9

The Election of 1996:

Senator Bob Dole of Kansas became Clintons opponent: prposed a 15% tax cut, didnt stick
Turnout was less than 50% of eligible voters

Impeachment: Even from early presidency, Clinton, wife, cabinet all under congressional investigation (Whitewater, filegate, travelgate)

Charged with lying about sexual relations with a white house intern
Impeachded on perjury and obstructuion of justice. Neither charge was held, but his reputation was damaged

Foreign Policy under Clinton:

peacekeeping : US soldiers died in Humanitarian missions in Civil war in SOmalia. Clinton sent 20k troops to Haiti restore its president Jean Bertrand Artiside ater a coup. Vladimir Putin came to office, straining relations due to repression of Chechnya civil war. Serbian dictator Siobodon Milosevic carried out arm conflicts to repress independence movements in Yugosla: Slovenia Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Kosovo. Hundreds of minotiries were “cleansed”. Balkan wars were ended by diplomacy, bombing, and troops from Nato
Asia: North Korea increased its nuclear programs, and India+Pakistan tested nukes for the first time. NK agreed to halt development of nukes after negotiations with Clinton, but secretly restarted

Globalization:

American Society Shifts/Changes:

Immigration:

Family:

Income:

Polarization and Election of 2000:

George Bush

Domestic Policy under George Bush:

Pushed for a conservative agenda: tax cuts, deregulation, federal aid to faith-based organization, pro-life legislation, school choice, privatization of Social Security and Medicare, drilling for oil and gas in the Alaska wildlife refuge, and voluntary environmental standards for industry
Republican Tax Cuts: 2001, $1.35 trillion dollar tax cut spread over ten years -- gradually eliminated estate taxes, increased child tax credit and limits for IRA and 401k contributions, and gave all taxpayers an immediate tax rebate. 2003, President Bush pushed through another round of tax cuts for stocks, capital gains, and married couples
- Only meant to benefit the richest 5% of the population
Education and Health Reform: Bipartisan No Child Left Behind Act -- aimed to improve student performance and close the gap between well-to-do and poor students in the public schools through testing all students nationwide, grating all students right to transfer, and funding reading programs
Economic Bubbles and Corruption: 2001, stock market crash. Unemployment rate climbed to 6%, and number of people living in poverty increased

The War on Terrorism:

Dominated US foreign policy after 9/11
US was faulted by many in the Arab world for siding with Israel in the deadly cycle Palestinian terror-bombing and Israeli reprisals
After WWI, the Ottoman Empire, the last of the Islamic empires, was replaced in the Middle East by Western-style, secular nation-states.
Osama Bin Laden and supporters of Al-Qaeda
- A truck bombing of the World Trade Center in NYC in 1993 that killed six people brought home for the first time the threat posed by Islamic extremists
- In 2000, US armed forces also learned the nature of “asymmetric” warfare conducted by terrorists, when two suicide bombers in a small rubber boat nearly sank a billion dollar warship, the USS Cole, docked in Yemen
9/11/2001 - coordinated attacks by Al-Qaeda terrorists in commercial airliners on the twin towers at the World Trade Center in NYC
War in Afghanistan: President Bush declared he wanted Bin Laden “dead or alive.” Taliban refused to turn over bin Laden and his associates, so they were overthrown by a combination of US bombing, US Special Forces, and Afghan troops in the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance. Afghanistan remained unstable and divided thr Taliban insurgency and tribal conflicts
Homeland Security: Patriot Acts of 2001 and 2003 gave unparalleled powers to the US government to obtain information and expand surveillance and arrest powers
- Americans troubled by wiretaps, collection of records about cell phone calls and emails, use of military tribunals to try suspects accused of terrorism and importsnment of suspectics at US prison in Cuba
- Secret Service, Coast Gaurd, FBI, CIA

Foreign policy under George Bush:

Worked with European Union and NATO, supported admission of China to WTO, and brokered conflicts between India and Pakistan
Refused to join the Kyoto Accord to prevent global warming, walked out of a UN conference on racism, abandoned the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missle Treaty with Russia, and would not negotiate with North Korea or Iran
Iraq War: Iraq, NK, and Iran were the Axis of Evil
Operation Iraqi Freedom: March 19, 2003 -- US launched air attacks on Iraq. US armed forces, with the support of the British and other allies, overran Iraqi forces, captured the capital city, Baghdad, and ended Hussein’s dictatorship

Election of 2004:

Bush wins again! Successfully energize their conservative base on issues such as war against terrorism, more tax cuts, and opposition ot gay marriage and abortion
Four More Years at War -- US, bipartisan Iraqi Study Group recommended steps to have Iraqis take greater responsibility for their country and set a timeline for US withdrawal
- Late 2008, US had started to turn over control of the provinces to the Iraqi government
Washington Politics: encouraged Americans to invest part of their Social Security payroll deductions in various market investments to privatize Social Security
- Immigration Reform
- Democrats ultimately win control of both houses of Congress in 2006

The Great Recession:

Housing boom fueled by risky subprime mortgages and speculators who borrowed to “flip” properties for a quick profit
- When housing prices began to dip, prices collapsed, foreclosures climbed, and investments worth trillions of dollars lost value (credit or liquidity crisis)
Soaring gas prices, stock market declines, rising unemployment
Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 -- created $700 billion Trouble Assets Relief Program (TARP) to purchase failing assets that included mortgages and mortgage-related securities from financial institutions

Election of 2008:

Republican Candidate is John McCain
Democratic Candidate is Barack Obama (first black president)
- VP was Biden

Barack Obama

Domestic policies and programs under Obama:

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 provided a $787 billion economic stimulus package designed to create or save 3.5 million jobs
Balance of package was for construction projects, healthcare, education, and renewable energy
2010 Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act: designed to improve regulations of banking and investment firms, and to protect taxpayers from future bailouts of “too big to fail” business. Bureau of Consumer Protection to regulate consumer products, such as mortgages and credit cards
Healthcare: Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 aimed to extend affordable healthcare insurance to an additional 25-30 million Americans through subsidies, mandates, and insurance exchanges
Budget Deficits

Foreign policy under Obama:

Opposition to the Iraq War and promise to end the unilateral approach overseas that had damaged the reputation of US during Bush presidency
2009, developed a plan to wind down US ground combat operations in Iraq. US military support and air power continued to help the Iraqi forces battle insurgents through end of 2011. Last US forces withdrawn
Afghanistan: prioritized fighting Al-Qaeda and Taliban. Added 17,000 troops to US forces in Afghanistan
Death of Osama Bin Laden made US focus forces on training and supporting Afghanistan military

Election of 2012

Obama wins again!!

Obama 2nd term Domestic Policies:

Partisan Budget Conflicts (still not compromised
Gun Violence: mass school shootings and shootings of unarmed black youths. Tried to tighten gun laws and background checks to keep guns out of the hands of people with mental health problems went nowhere in Congress
Terrorism: Boston Marathon

Obama’s 2nd term Foreign Policies:

Sectarian division between Sunni, Shiite Muslimes worsened and radical terrorists found safe havens in Iraq, Syria, Libya, and Yemen -- ISIS or ISIL
Europe, tensions between Russia and NATO countries centered on Ukraine

Contemporary issues:

Affirmative Action and Voting Rights: overturned actions of local school districts, it deferred to states on voting rights
- Shelby County v Holder struck down an important provision on Voting rights Act -- required that certain states with a history of voter discrimination obtain prior federal approval of any changes in voting laws
Citizens United v Federal Election Commission (2010) -- corporations were “legal persons” and had the same rights as individuals to buy ads to influence political elections
EPA and Clean Air Act had authority to regulate air pollution emitted from coal plants that cross state lines
Obergefell v Hodges -- same-sex couples have fundamental rights to marry under the 14th amendment
Gun Rights
Immigration -- employers can check immigration status of potential employees
Healthcare same act

Election of 2016:

Between Trump and and Hillary Clinton
- Trump wins

Donald Trump

Domestic Policies under Trump:

Emphasized tax cuts, deregulation of the private sector, trade protection, and immigration control
Tax Cuts and Jobs Act
Tear Party: Republicans in 2010 took control of the House with a 242 to 193 majority
Elections and Money:
- Citizens United v Federal Election Commission -- “legal person” and had the same rights as individuals to buy ads to influence political elections
Paris Agreement - reduce global carbon emissions
Every Students Succeeds Act, No Child Left Behind, attacked for excessive testing and for supporting efforts to develop common curriculum standards across the country
Budget Deficits - decreased federal tax receipts, increased federal spending to avoid a depression, and shrank the overall economy
Healthcare: insurance companies had to accept patients regardless of preexisting conditions, allowed children to remain on their parents’ insurance until age 26

Foreign Policy under Trump:

Travel Ban - restricts Syria, North Korea, Iran, Chad, Libya, Yemen, Somalia for up to 90 days other refugee nations up to 120
TPP Withdrawl - made up of almost 12 countries along the pacific that wish to thoroughly deepen their combined economy by rapidly diminishing tariffs between them

Impeachment:

Accused of interfering in the 2020 election by withholding military aid to Ukraine in phone conversation with newly-elected Ukraine President in exchange for Zelensky publicly announcing he would investigate Joe Biden and his son -- ultimately acquitted

2020 Pandemic:

COVID 19!!

The Election of 2020:

Democrats Biden
Republicans Trump
Biden wins

Attack on the Capital:

Capitol Riots in which Republicans raided the Capitol after Biden got elected into office. Death of many

Joe Biden

Containment of Covid-19 crisis by expanding testing, safely reopening schools and businesses, and taking science- driven steps to address communities
Climate crisis tackling
Racial equality
Economy -- Covid 19
Building on Affordable Care Act to meet the health care needs created by the pandemic
Immigration