Oregon Territory and Development of British Columbia

Oregon Territory

The Oregon Territory, also known as the Columbia District by the British, was an area in the Pacific Northwest occupied by British and American colonists.
Timeline:
- 1792: Captain George Vancouver enters Burrard Inlet.
- 1843: James Douglas begins construction of Fort Victoria.
- 1846: The United States takes possession of the Oregon Territory south of the 49th parallel.
- 1858: The Colony of British Columbia is formed; the Fraser Canyon War occurs.
- 1860: The Cariboo Gold Rush begins.
- 1862: Construction of the Cariboo Road begins; smallpox epidemic.
- 1864: Tsilhqot'in Uprising.
- 1866: Vancouver Island and British Columbia are joined.
- 1868: Victoria is declared the capital of British Columbia.
- 1871: British Columbia joins Confederation.
- 1884: Vancouver is chosen as the CPR terminus.
- 1885: Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration to British Columbia.

British Columbia Prior to the 1800s

Prior to the 1800s, British Columbia lacked infrastructure such as roads, boundary lines, cities, bridges, or ferries.
The territory was inhabited by 80,000 to 100,000 First Nations people.
The 19th century saw an intense and lucrative fur trade in the region, leading to dramatic changes.

Boundary Agreement of 1819

In 1819, the British and American governments agreed to set the boundary separating their territories at 49° N latitude (the 49th parallel) between Lake of the Woods and the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains.
The region west of the Rockies to the Pacific Ocean was called the Oregon Territory.
The decision regarding control of the Oregon Territory was deferred due to its sparse European population.
The interests of the First Nations inhabitants were not considered.

Conflicting Interests in the Oregon Territory

United States:
- Sought to exploit the Oregon Territory for its advantage.
- Faced a rapidly increasing population and needed new areas for expansion.
- Acquired territory west of the Mississippi from France in 1803.
- Believed in Manifest Destiny, the idea that they were destined to control all of North America, prompting an aggressive settlement policy.
- Actively encouraged people from the eastern states to move to the Oregon Territory, settling south of the Columbia River near present-day Portland.
- By the 1830s, the population south of the Columbia River was growing rapidly.
Britain:
- The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) preferred to keep the region open for the fur trade and did not encourage settlement.

Hudson's Bay Company in the Oregon Territory

In 1824, HBC manager George Simpson toured the company's Oregon Territory posts.
He decided to build a new trading post on the north bank of the Columbia River, called Fort Vancouver, to better utilize the region's resources.
John McLoughlin, a French Canadian, was put in charge of Fort Vancouver and directed to expand the fur trade along the Pacific coast.
McLoughlin encouraged American colonists to settle south of the Columbia River to limit competition with the HBC's trade, even offering them supplies and money.
By the end of the 1830s, there was a strong American presence south of the Columbia River, but the HBC and the British government paid little attention due to the success of the fur trade.
The HBC had competition from the Russians, who had fur-trading posts along the northern coast.
By 1839, the HBC and the Russians agreed that the Russians would not operate south of $54°40' N$ latitude (about where Prince Rupert is today).
In exchange, the HBC would supply the Russians with food from their farms around Fort Vancouver and on Puget Sound.
In 1841, George Simpson revisited the HBC posts in the Pacific coast region and, disappointed with the fur trade's expansion, decided to cut costs.
All trading posts along the coast were to be closed, except for Fort Simpson, and the steamship Beaver would be used to trade with coastal First Nations communities.

The Pacific Coast's First Steamer

The Hudson's Bay Company faced inaccessibility issues during the coastal fur trade due to the lack of roads or safe rivers.
To supply coastal trading posts, the company built a steamship, the Beaver, which arrived in 1836.
The Beaver was the first steamship of its kind to work along the British Columbia coast and became a familiar sight for the next 50 years.
The Beaver supplied HBC trading posts until 1862, then chartered by the Royal Navy as a survey vessel from 1863 to 1870.
In 1874, it was sold and operated as a tugboat until it was wrecked in 1888 on Prospect Point at Vancouver Harbour.
The wreck of the Beaver became a tourist destination until it sank in 1892.

John McLoughlin's Later Years

John McLoughlin retired from the HBC in 1846 and settled in Oregon City on the Williamette River.
He became an American citizen in 1849 and is now known as "The Father of Oregon" due to his assistance to American settlers.
McLoughlin was furious about Simpson's decision to close the coastal forts, feeling betrayed after his son's death in 1842.
He developed a hatred for both Simpson and the HBC, continuing to promote American settlement south of the Columbia River and discouraging settlement north of the river.

Official Boundary Establishment

The rising population of Americans in the Oregon Territory prompted Britain and the United States to recognize the need for a permanent boundary.
In 1843, Simpson ordered James Douglas, Fort Vancouver's chief factor, to build a new trading post on Vancouver Island, inside what would likely become British territory.
Douglas found a suitable site at the south end of Vancouver Island and named it Fort Victoria.
In 1844, Democrat James Polk won the United States presidential election with the slogan "54 40 or fight," advocating for obtaining all of the Oregon Territory up to its northern boundary of $54° 40' N$ latitude.
Despite his tough talk, Polk never intended to go to war with Britain, and negotiations in 1845 and 1846 extended the 49th parallel boundary west.
Vancouver Island remained in British hands, while Fort Vancouver and the HBC's farms on Puget Sound became American territory.
James Douglas spent the next several years transferring the company's operations from Fort Vancouver to Fort Victoria, and Fort Vancouver was officially closed in 1849.

Crown Colony of Vancouver Island

In 1848, the British government established the Crown colony of Vancouver Island to solidify its claim on the region.
Britain granted a trade monopoly to the Hudson's Bay Company, allowing it to sell land to European or American immigrants.
James Douglas was appointed governor and also served as chief factor of Fort Victoria for 10 years.
Douglas suggested offering free land to colonists to encourage settlement, but the British government decided to charge about $5 per acre$ , with a minimum purchase of $20 acres$ .
Most of the best land around Fort Victoria had already been purchased by the HBC or its employees, including Douglas himself.
During the 1850s, the Vancouver Island colony's economy grew rapidly with the discovery of coal near Nanaimo and Cumberland.
Douglas convinced the British to establish a naval base near Fort Victoria, using nearby coal as a fuel supply for the ships.
The Royal Navy became important to the social life of Fort Victoria, with naval officers attending social functions.
Douglas and most of the HBC employees who settled in the colony had Métis or First Nations wives, who were often shunned by the prejudiced newcomers.

James and Amelia Douglas

James Douglas was born in 1803 in Guyana, the son of a Scottish merchant and a free Black woman.
Educated in Scotland, he began working for the North West Company at 16 and later worked for the Hudson's Bay Company after the merger.
He married Amelia Connolly, the Métis daughter of Chief Factor William Connolly, in 1828.
Douglas was respected for his abilities but known for his quick temper.
He was given command of Fort Vancouver and then Fort Victoria.
In 1851, Douglas became the governor of the newly formed colony of Vancouver Island, leading to a potential conflict of interest.
He was eventually asked to end his connections to the fur trade.
Douglas' actions to protect British sovereignty, his decisions regarding First Nations and their lands, and his foresight in the building of the Cariboo Road earned him the title "Father of British Columbia."
Amelia Douglas was the daughter of a North West Company factor and a Cree woman.
She married James Douglas at 16 and was largely responsible for raising their 13 children due to her husband's HBC business.
Amelia Douglas was well known in fur-trade circles, and her diplomatic talents often came into play when her husband dealt with First Nations and Métis.
In 1828, she offered trade goods to an outraged chief as compensation when James Douglas violated the sanctity of the chief's house, saving his life.
Amelia Douglas was the head of one of the most powerful families in the colony but rarely took part in its social scene, possibly due to prejudice against people of Métis heritage.

Douglas Treaties

When the colony of Vancouver Island was created, the First Nations population far outnumbered the European colonists.
There were no reserves, and First Nations freely hunted, fished, and built communities.
James Douglas negotiated fourteen treaties between 1850 and 1854 to gain title to land occupied by the First Nations.
The First Nations could choose where their reserves would be, and surveyors were instructed to include already established villages.
The size of the reserves was also left up to the First Nations, including range lands for cattle and horses.
First Nations were able to keep their traditional hunting and fishing rights.
Douglas' payment for the land acknowledged Aboriginal title to the land, which had tremendous significance in later treaty negotiations.
After Douglas was out of power, the government chose to interpret the agreements their own way, taking away much of the land in the treaties.
Joseph Trutch, Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for the colony, refused to honor agreements appearing in some of the Douglas Treaties and reduced the size of already established reserves.
After the last Douglas Treaty was signed, there were no other treaties in the region until 150 years later, when the Nisga'a First Nation signed a treaty with the province of British Columbia.

Cariboo Gold Rush

The Cariboo Gold Rush was directly responsible for the early development of British Columbia.
In 1848, gold was discovered along the Sacramento River in California, leading to the California Gold Rush.
The vast majority of gold seekers never struck it rich, and many never returned home.
Prospecting for gold was a difficult and often disappointing task.
Miners searched for gold deposits by digging up gravel at the side of the creek and swirling it in a wide, shallow pan to expose the gold.
A pan of gold valued from $25 cents to a dollar$ might signal a worthwhile deposit in the area.
Miners then staked a claim along the creek bank and dug a mine shaft down to the bedrock below.
Gold-bearing clay and sand were brought to the surface and washed to reveal the gold.
Prospecting and mining gold were time-consuming and back-breaking tasks.
Most of the best claims in California had already been staked by people who were there in 1848.
By the mid-1850s, the gold along the Sacramento River had been mined out, and San Francisco was filled with unemployed former miners.

Fraser River Gold Rush

In late 1857, an HBC trader arrived in Fort Victoria carrying gold dust and nuggets he had panned along the banks of the Thompson River.
Governor Douglas feared that news of another gold strike would lead to an invasion of American miners and the annexation of the mainland.
In the winter of 1857-1858, prospectors in Washington and Oregon began moving north to the banks of the Fraser and Thompson rivers.
They discovered gold on the sandbars of both rivers, and word swiftly reached San Francisco.
By the end of the summer, over 10,000 men, mostly American, were working claims along the Fraser Canyon.

Fraser Canyon War

Douglas made an effort to control the number of miners entering the Fraser Canyon, but he could not have been completely successful.
The rush of newcomers into the area led to conflict with the Nlaka'pamux First Nation.
An attack on a young Nlaka'pamux woman in the fall of 1858 led to the killing of several gold miners.
Informal militias, made up of armed miners, were quickly formed.
Leaders of different militias argued over how to resolve the situation.
A message of peace was sent to Camchin, a village located where the Thompson and Fraser rivers meet (now called Lytton).
Nlaka'pamux leaders, along with representatives of the Secwepemc and Okanagan First Nations, came together in Camchin to discuss what to do.
Cxpentlum (Spintlum) argued for peace, and when the militias entered Camchin, they were greeted peacefully.
Douglas was concerned because the miners had organized themselves and had acted on their own.

Ned McGowan's War

British control of the mainland was challenged again.
Gold miners from San Francisco split into two opposing camps: the Vigilance Committee and the Law and Order Party.
The leader of the Law and Order Party was Ned McGowan.
McGowan became frustrated with a local official named Richard Hicks, who had been appointed by James Douglas.
Hicks was corrupt, taking bribes in exchange for permits and claims.
Douglas compromised by sending Justice of the Peace Peter Whannell to keep an eye on Hicks.
Whannell was intensely disliked; he was considered corrupt, foolish, and vain.
Events came to a head when a British man was shot by an American in a fight.
The American fled to McGowan for protection, and tension erupted as the Vigilance Committee suggested it was time for them to take control.
Whannell issued arrest warrants for two of McGowan's men, and McGowan persuaded another justice of the peace to arrest Whannell for contempt instead.
Douglas sent in a group of soldiers, as well as Judge Matthew Begbie and Colonel Richard Moody.
McGowan told his own men to ask the American military for help if fighting broke out.
Moody and Begbie entered the area, calmly settled the dispute without violence, and fired Hicks.
The presence of the soldiers calmed all sides, and British rule was kept.

Colony of British Columbia (1858)

Established on the mainland, extending from the 49th parallel to $54° 40' N$ .
Douglas appointed governor.
Colonial Office sent Royal Engineers for military presence, surveying, and town/road planning.
Matthew Begbie appointed chief justice to uphold the rule of law.
Gold miners moved up the Fraser River, reaching the Quesnel River by 1860.
Discovery of gold in creeks flowing into the Quesnel led to the Cariboo Gold Rush.

Cariboo Wagon Road

Early 1860s travel to goldfields extremely difficult due to lack of routes inland.
Miners carried supplies or used pack horses on old HBC trails.
1858: Douglas hired miners to widen an old HBC trail bypassing Fraser River rapids, but it was hard to maintain.
1862: Douglas ordered construction of the Cariboo Wagon Road from Yale northward along Fraser Canyon to Lytton, then overland to Quesnel and Barkerville.
Almost 650 km long, took three years to build, cost colonial government $750,000$ .
Finished in 1865, but gold rush was already declining, resulting in lower than anticipated tax revenues and deep debt for the colony.

Barkerville

Main town of the Cariboo Gold Rush on Williams Creek.
Named after Billy Barker, who struck gold in 1862.
By year-end, Williams Creek was staked, and small communities developed around mines.
Initial life was hard due to slow and difficult supply transport.
Town layout: Two streets next to Williams Creek, wood-frame buildings touching, surrounded by miners' shacks and flumes for rinsing gold.
Mid-1860s: 5,000-10,000 residents. Cariboo Wagon Road opening led to thriving businesses (general stores, boarding houses, post office, drugstore, barbershop, Theatre Royal, Cariboo Literary Society).
Attracted diverse populations, including Black and Chinese settlers.
Chinese businesses like the Kwong Lee Company ran general stores.
Wellington Moses, part of a group of Black settlers from San Francisco, opened the town's barbershop.
Vibrant night life with Hurdy Gurdy Girls brought from Germany to dance with miners.

End of Gold in Barkerville

September 16, 1868: Most of Barkerville destroyed by fire, but rebuilt within three months.
Early 1870s: Easily mined gold depleted, only large mining outfits with hydraulic equipment remained.
1880s: Population dwindling.
1920s: Almost a ghost town.
1958: Restored as a tourist attraction for British Columbia's centennial.

Autocratic Rule in British Columbia

Until 1856, James Douglas had almost exclusive control of new Pacific coast colonies, with no elected legislative assembly.
Legislative and executive councils appointed by him.
This approach prompted protests as population grew.
1856: Douglas ordered to create a seven-member legislative assembly for Vancouver Island, but with property ownership requirements for voting.
Douglas still retained control, and could ignore resolutions he didn't like.

Population Changes and Smallpox Epidemic

1855 census: 774 non-First Nations population; at least 30,000 First Nations population (at least 60,000 along the coast).
Spring 1862: Smallpox brought to Victoria by San Francisco miner.
Spread quickly, especially to First Nations communities, leading to an epidemic.
Colonists vaccinated, First Nations villages quarantined.
First Nations ordered to go home, spreading disease.
Significant population loss on Haida Gwaii and other coastal areas.

Immigration and Decline

Fraser and Cariboo Gold Rushes brought over 35,000 people.
By mid-1860s, gold depleted, and population declined to less than 10,000.

Financial Crisis and Colony Union

Fewer people paying taxes reduced government revenue.
1865: Vancouver Island was $300,000$ in debt, British Columbia over $1 million$ .
Banks refused loans in 1866.
Solution: Unite the colonies.
British Colonial Office agreed due to financial burden and officially united the two colonies as the colony of British Columbia on August 6, 1866.

Provincial Government in British Columbia

1856: James Douglas directed to create legislative assembly of elected members (property owners only).
1866: Colonies joined, created legislative council of 23, with only nine elected.
Victoria selected as capital.
1871: Joined Confederation; 25-member provincial legislative assembly created.
No political parties until 1903, leading to instability.
Today: Legislature includes Lieutenant-Governor and 79 elected MLAs
Each MLA represents a constituency, and Canadian citizens over 18 can vote and run for office.
Elections held every four years since 2001.

Rights

Women and Chinese Canadians denied right to vote until 1917 and 1949, respectively
First Nations in 1960.

Confederation Debate

Declining populations and financial losses led to colony union
Economic woes persisted- British Columbia needed more people, money, markets, so Confederation might help those problems but some doubt remained
Representatives on the mainland were strongly in favor of Confederation, and members from Vancouver Island were equally opposed- a third group, mostly Victoria merchants favored annexation by the United States

Confederation Arguments

1868, the mainland representatives wanted Dominion government to take responsibility for British Columbia's debt, wanted a wagon road from Lake Superior to New Westminster meaning an important trade link to Canada. In addition, they demanded responsible government

United States

Those in favor of joining the United States felt it was a better economic deal for British Columbia
Anti-confederationists wanted to maintain ties to Britain, and generally mistrusted Canadians. The First Nations in the region were not asked their opinion

British Governement Intervention

In late 1868, a new election created a balance of anti- and pro-confederationists in the assembly. Then, in 1869, Governor Seymour died suddenly.
The British Colonial Office appointed Anthony Musgrave as his replacement. Musgrave was a personal friend of John A. Macdonald
The British government, tired of supporting the colony, was in favor of Confederation. Musgrave's instructions were simple-get British Columbia to join Confederation as quickly as possible.

British Columbia Joins Confederation

The annexationists collected only 125 signatures in favor when circulated in Victoria, a town of 3000 people.
Musgrave asked the anti-confederationists asked to work with him on a policy of union.
When the delegation arrived in Ottawa, the Canadian government agreed with virtually all of the terms even promising a railway to British Columbia within 10 years.
On July 20, 1871, British Columbia officially joined Canada

Emergence of Vancouver

Vancouver is British Columbia’s youngest major community. Other areas origin was either from fur trade or the gold rush

Vancouver's Development

Burrard Inlet wasn't fed by main river and it was covered by thick forests so it discouraged people from settling
Colonel Moody appreciated Burrard Inlet during his arrival at New Westminster, he had trails cut through forest from New Westminster to the Inlet

Economic

1860, Vancouver was covered in thick forest, 1865 the area had changed- Captain Edward Stamp built Hastings Mill on the south side of inlet- Sawell Moody built a sawmill on the north side of the inlet both mills specialized in large trees
They exported all around the world

Vancouver and Alcohol

Hastings Mill and Moodyville were dry towns until John "Gassy Jack" Deighton appeared in Burrard Inlet in 1867, with his family and a barrel of whisky. buildings appeared on the shores of Burrard Inlet. (Gastown)

Canadian Pacific Railway

1881, Port Moody was terminus line of the Canadian Pacific Railway line. People bought land which could only secure future metropolis.
1884, William Van Horne arrived at Port Moody to establish the exact location of the CPR terminus. He found the site utterly unsuitable.

Development

William Van Horne moved from Port Moody because of deep-water anchorages close to shore/wide expanses of flat land perfect for rail yards which would be named Vancouver.
1886, City of Vancouver became incorporated, 1890 the city had a population of 5000 which then had over 20,000 within 10 years.

British Columbia's Economy

Confederation prompted previous north-south trade with the United States shift more east-west, drew business eastward and with the railway natural resources increased due to immigrating demands- this then increased population and soon enough travel came through the Rocky Mountains
Goods flowed easily out of the province and out to Asian markets with the new expansion

Kanakas Arrival

The first non-European immigrants came from the Hawaiian Islands in the early 19th century. The first Europeans to visit the Hawaiian Islands were Captain James Cook and his crew.

Relations to British/American

British and American vessels continued to visit the Hawaiian Islands. New sailors impressed shipmates with hard work and sailing skills

Kanakas Business

1820s, the Hudson's Bay Company was hiring Kanakas to work at HBC posts in the Oregon Territory. 1840s, there were more than 200 Kanakas working near Fort Vancouver, mostly as farmers, more lived and worked at Fort Nisqually and Fort Langley. They married First Nations women and started families

Border Shift

After the border between the United States and Canada was established, the HBC wound up affairs across its people and moved its people north. People including Kanakas were encouraged to start lives on their own in British Columbia

Locations

They established in Coal Harbour near what is now Stanley Park which was known until 1890 and the descendants still live in the area. Salt Spring Island in the Gulf Islands where the Kanaka community continued into the 20th century

Black Immigrants

Spring of 1858, news of the Fraser River Gold Rush reached California so many Black citizens of San Francisco traveled north to Victoria to petition James Douglas for permission to settle on Vancouver Island.
Agreed= by summer- several hundred Black Americans left California for the relative freedom of Vancouver Island.

Community Defence

The colony of Vancouver Island had no military force at the time, so when members of the Black community formed a militia Douglas authorized the creation of the Victoria Pioneer Rifle Corps

Joe Fortes

Seraphim Fortes discovered English Bay and its beaches. He quit his steady job, built a small house on the shore, and established himself as the unofficial guardian of the beach- popular citizen