1.3 Contemporary Psychology - Psychology 2e | OpenStax

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  • Learning objectives for this section emphasize:

    • Appreciating the diversity of interests and foci within psychology.
    • Understanding basic interests and applications in each described area.
    • Demonstrating familiarity with major concepts or important figures in each area of psychology.

  • Contemporary psychology is a diverse field influenced by historical perspectives. The American Psychological Association (APA) is the largest organization of psychologists in the world, with a mission to advance and disseminate psychological knowledge for the betterment of people.

    • The APA has 54 divisions representing a wide variety of specialties (e.g., Societies for the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality to Exercise and Sport Psychology to Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology).
    • Members include students to doctoral-level psychologists, from educational settings to criminal justice, hospitals, the armed forces, and industry (APA, 2014).
    • G. Stanley Hall was the first president of the APA. Before his PhD, he was an adjunct instructor at Wilberforce University (an HBCU) while serving at Antioch College. He later earned a PhD under William James and became the first president of Clark University (Pickren & Rutherford, 2010).

  • The Association for Psychological Science (APS) was founded in 1988 to advance the scientific orientation of psychology. Its formation arose from disagreements between the scientific and clinical branches within the APA. The APS publishes five research journals and engages in education and advocacy with funding agencies. A sizable portion of its members are international, though most reside in the United States.

  • Other professional groups provide networking and collaboration opportunities for professionals from specific ethnic or racial groups, including:

    • National Latina/o Psychological Association (NLPA)
    • Asian American Psychological Association (AAPA)
    • Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi)
    • Society of Indian Psychologists (SIP)
    • These groups often study psychological and social issues within their communities.

  • This section previews major subdivisions within psychology as presented in this textbook. It is not exhaustively listing every area, but it highlights major research and practice domains.

  • Link to learning: Visit the APA divisions page to learn more and view student resources provided by APA.

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  • Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology: core definitions

    • Biopsychology (also called biological psychology) examines how biology influences behavior, with a focus on how the nervous system’s structure and function relate to behavior. It often combines research strategies from psychology and physiology (neuroscience) (Carlson, 2013).
    • Key areas of research include: sensory and motor systems, sleep, drug use and abuse, ingestive behavior, reproductive behavior, neurodevelopment, plasticity of the nervous system, and biological correlates of psychological disorders.
    • The field is interdisciplinary, involving biologists, medical professionals, physiologists, and chemists. This interdisciplinary approach is often referred to as neuroscience, with biological psychology as a component (Carlson, 2013).

  • Evolutionary psychology

    • Seeks to study the ultimate biological causes of behavior. If a behavior is genetically influenced, it is expected to be adaptive to the organism’s environment (physical and social). Evolution shapes behavior via natural selection.
    • Origins trace to Charles Darwin, who argued that behaviors are adaptive. Darwin wrote The Descent of Man (1871) and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872).
    • Evolutionary psychology often predicts behavior outcomes in specific situations using evolutionary theory and then tests these predictions through observations and experiments. However, such studies do not constitute strong evidence that a behavior is adaptive, because they may not disentangle genetic from cultural factors (Endler, 1986).
    • Drawbacks include difficulties in proving that a trait is naturally selected, and the risk that traits observed now evolved under past environments that are poorly understood today. Thus, predictions about current adaptiveness are inherently uncertain.
    • Predictions of evolutionary psychology apply to many domains, including memory, mate choice, kin relationships, friendship and cooperation, parenting, social organization, and status (Confer et al., 2010).
    • An example: Buss (1989) found cross-culturally that women valued earning potential more than men, while men valued youth and attractiveness more than women in prospective mates. These results generally align with evolutionary predictions, though there were cultural deviations.

  • Key takeaway: Biopsychology focuses on proximate (immediate) physiological mechanisms; evolutionary psychology focuses on ultimate (historical/genetic) explanations for behavior.

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  • Sensation and Perception

    • This area studies both physiological aspects of sensory systems and the psychological experience of sensory information. It is highly interdisciplinary.
    • Everyday example: walking between buildings involves processing sights, sounds, touch, smells, temperature, and balance. Perception is not a simple sum of sensations; it is influenced by where we focus attention, previous experiences, and cultural backgrounds (Figure 1.11 illustrates how perception can differ (duck/rowl image)).
    • Perception is an interpretive process that can yield different experiences from the same sensory input.

  • Cognitive Psychology

    • Emerged from the cognitive revolution, focusing on mental processes that underlie behavior: thoughts, attention, problem solving, language, memory, etc.
    • Cognitive psychology is broad and often intersects with other disciplines; some researchers call the broader interdisciplinary field “cognitive science.”
    • Because of its breadth, cognitive psychology isn’t confined to a single chapter in many texts; concepts appear across chapters on sensation and perception, thinking and intelligence, memory, lifespan development, social psychology, and therapy.

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  • Developmental Psychology

    • Scientific study of development across the lifespan, including physical maturation, cognitive changes, moral reasoning, social behavior, and other psychological attributes.
    • Early development work, such as Piaget, investigated changes from infancy to adulthood, revealing important milestones in cognitive development (e.g., object permanence).
    • Object permanence: understanding that objects continue to exist even when hidden. Very young infants often act as if hidden objects no longer exist. The age at which object permanence emerges is somewhat controversial (Munakata, McClelland, Johnson, & Siegler, 1997).
    • There is growing interest in aging populations. In the U.S., the number of people aged 65+ was just over 40,000,000 in 2010; projections estimate about 55,000,000 by 2020 and nearly 90,000,000 by 2050 (Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.).

  • Personality Psychology

    • Focuses on enduring patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make individuals unique.
    • Historical influences include Freud, Maslow, and Gordon Allport. Freud proposed that personality develops through lifelong conflicts between conscious and unconscious processes, including psychosexual stages where erogenous zones shift from oral to anal to phallic to genitals.
    • Many of Freud’s ideas were controversial and not easily testable by rigorous experiments (Person, 1980).
    • Contemporary research often emphasizes trait-based approaches, measuring stable personality traits and examining how these traits interact with contexts to predict behavior.

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  • Five Factor Model (Big Five)

    • Personality traits are commonly captured by five dimensions:
    • Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion.
    • These traits are relatively stable across the lifespan and are influenced by genetics.
    • Notable references supporting stability and heritability include: Rantanen, Metsäpelto, Feldt, Pulkinnen, and Kokko (2007); Soldz & Vaillant (1999); McCrae & Costa (2008); with genetic influences evidenced by Jang, Livesley, and Vernon (1996).
    • A schematic depiction is often shown in figures illustrating the position of an individual on each dimension (Figure 1.13).

  • Social Psychology

    • Focuses on how people interact with and relate to others. Topics include:
    • Explanations for own vs. others’ behavior, prejudice, attraction, and conflict resolution.
    • How being in the presence of others changes thoughts and behaviors.

  • Milgram and obedience (an iconic example)

    • Stanley Milgram conducted a controversial study on obedience to authority after World War II to understand how ordinary people could be led to inflict harm.
    • In Milgram’s setup, participants believed they were delivering shocks to another person under instruction from an authority figure (a man in a lab coat). Approximately two-thirds of participants delivered what they believed were lethal shocks (Milgram, 1961).
    • The study used deception and relied on confederates; participants were paid and could withdraw, but many did not due to perceived authority.
    • Ethical concerns from Milgram and similar studies prompted guidelines that discourage deception and require informed consent, while allowing deception only under strict, justified circumstances and with safeguard measures (Hock, 2009).
    • Visual reference: Figure 1.14 depicts Milgram’s setup and recruitment ad.

  • Ethical and practical implications

    • These studies catalyzed improved ethics in psychological research, including the necessity for minimizing harm and ensuring informed consent whenever possible.

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  • Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology

    • Applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings to workplace settings.
    • I-O psychologists address personnel management, organizational structure, and workplace environment to improve hiring decisions, productivity, and efficiency (Riggio, 2013).

  • Health Psychology and the Biopsychosocial Model

    • Health psychology examines how biology, psychology, and sociocultural factors interact to influence health and illness.
    • The biopsychosocial model posits that health is determined by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors (Figure 1.15).
    • Health psychologists research how genetics, behavior patterns, relationships, and stress relate to health outcomes, and how to motivate healthier behaviors through policy, education, and interventions (MacDonald, 2013).

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  • Sport and Exercise Psychology

    • Studies the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional well-being.
    • Research also covers related domains of physical performance under demanding conditions (e.g., firefighting, military operations, artistic performance, and surgery).

  • Clinical Psychology and Counseling Psychology

    • Clinical psychology focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic patterns of behavior; it is highly applied but also involves scientific research.
    • Counseling psychology is similar but emphasizes emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in psychologically healthy individuals.
    • Historical influences on clinical practice include Freud’s psychodynamic perspectives and Rogers’s client-centered therapy.
    • Contributions from behaviorism and the cognitive revolution have shaped clinical practice toward behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) (Figure 1.16).

  • Note on scope

    • Although clinical psychology receives extensive media attention, psychology as a field encompasses many other subfields and is not limited to clinical work.

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Forensic Psychology

  • Forensic psychology deals with questions arising at the intersection of psychology and the justice system. Typical roles include:

    • Assessing competency to stand trial and the defendant’s mental state.
    • Consulting on child custody cases, sentencing and treatment recommendations, and issues such as eyewitness testimony and children’s testimony (American Board of Forensic Psychology, 2014).
    • Serving as expert witnesses in court proceedings to provide research- or experience-based opinions.
    • Forensic psychologists need to understand legal contexts and present information relevant to the legal system, not solely within psychology.
    • They may be involved in jury selection and witness preparation.
    • They can provide psychological treatment within the criminal justice system.
    • Criminal profilers are a relatively small subset who work as consultants to law enforcement.

  • Educational takeaway

    • The forensic domain integrates psychology with law, requiring an understanding of legal standards and evidentiary considerations in addition to psychological expertise.

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  • Summary of I-O and Health Psychology context continued

    • I-O psychology emphasizes practical applications in organizations, including personnel decisions, organizational development, and enhancing workplace well-being.
    • Health psychology’s biopsychosocial model highlights the integrated approach to health, stressing prevention, public policy, and behavior change strategies.

  • Transition to applications in other domains

    • The spectrum from basic science (biopsychology, cognitive psychology) to applied practice (clinical, counseling, I-O, health, sport) shows the field’s breadth and its relevance to real-world issues.

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  • Sport and Exercise Psychology (revisited)
    • Broader implications include performance context management, motivation, anxiety reduction, and well-being related to physical activity.
    • The integration of mental training with