Learning

🧠 6.1 What Is Learning?

Definition of learning

Learning = a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

Learned vs. unlearned behaviors

Key idea: Reflexes and instincts are innate; learning requires experience.

Three major types of learning

1. Classical conditioning

• Learning an association between two stimuli

• Example: A sound becomes associated with food.

2. Operant conditioning

• Learning an association between a behavior and its consequence

• Example: Studying → good grade → more studying.

3. Observational learning

• Learning by watching and imitating others

• Example: A child learns how to tie shoes by watching a parent.

Associative learning

Learning that involves connecting events or stimuli that occur together.

Classical conditioning:
Stimulus → response

Operant conditioning:
Behavior → consequence

🔔 6.2 Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning while studying digestion in dogs. He noticed that dogs began responding to cues that predicted food.

The basic process

Before conditioning

🍖 Food → 🐶 Salivation
UCS → UCR

🔔 Bell → No salivation
NS → No CR

During conditioning

🔔 Bell + 🍖 Food → 🐶 Salivation

After conditioning

🔔 Bell → 🐶 Salivation
CS → CR

The bell started as a neutral stimulus (NS) but became a conditioned stimulus (CS) after being repeatedly paired with food.

⭐ Terms to memorize

• UCS — Unconditioned Stimulus: naturally triggers a response

  • Example: food

• UCR — Unconditioned Response: natural, unlearned response

  • Example: salivation to food

• NS — Neutral Stimulus: initially does not produce the relevant response

  • Example: bell before conditioning

• CS — Conditioned Stimulus: previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the UCS

  • Example: bell after conditioning

• CR — Conditioned Response: learned response to the CS

  • Example: salivation to the bell

Classical conditioning vocabulary

Acquisition

• Initial period when the association is being learned.

Extinction

• The conditioned response decreases when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

Spontaneous recovery

• An extinguished conditioned response can temporarily return after a rest period.

Generalization

• Similar stimuli produce a similar response.

• Example: A dog conditioned to one bell responds to similar sounds.

Discrimination

• Learning to distinguish between different stimuli.

• Example: Responding only to one specific tone.

Higher-order conditioning

• An established CS is used to condition a new stimulus.

Real-world example

Someone receiving chemotherapy may become nauseated when entering the doctor’s office because the office has become associated with the chemotherapy.

Chemotherapy → nausea
Doctor’s office + chemotherapy → nausea
Eventually:
Doctor’s office → nausea

This demonstrates classical conditioning.

🐀 6.3 Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner

Operant conditioning = learning in which a behavior is influenced by its consequences.

Basic idea

Behavior → Consequence → Future behavior

If the consequence encourages behavior:

⬆ Behavior increases

If the consequence discourages behavior:

⬇ Behavior decreases

⭐ Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Reinforcement

Always increases a behavior.

Punishment

Always decreases a behavior.

The words positive and negative do NOT mean good and bad.

• Positive = add something

• Negative = remove something

The 4 types

Examples

Positive reinforcement:
Student gets a candy for completing homework.
→ Homework increases.

Negative reinforcement:
Buckle your seatbelt → annoying car alarm stops.
→ Seatbelt use increases.

Positive punishment:
Speeding → receive a ticket.
→ Speeding decreases.

Negative punishment:
Teen breaks a rule → phone is taken away.
→ Rule-breaking decreases.

⚠ Biggest test trap

Negative reinforcement ≠ punishment

Negative reinforcement increases behavior.

Punishment decreases behavior.

⏰ Reinforcement Schedules

A reinforcement schedule determines when a behavior is rewarded.

Continuous reinforcement

Reward every time the behavior occurs.

Example:
Every time a dog sits → receives a treat.

Fixed-ratio

Reward after a set number of responses.

Example:

• Get paid after making every 10 sales.

Think: fixed = number

Variable-ratio

Reward after an unpredictable number of responses.

Example:

• Slot machines

Think: variable = unpredictable number

Fixed-interval

Reward after a set amount of time.

Example:

• Weekly quiz

Think: fixed = predictable time

Variable-interval

Reward after an unpredictable amount of time.

Example:

• Checking your phone for a new message.

Think: variable = unpredictable time

Easy memory trick

Ratio = number of behaviors
Interval = amount of time

Fixed = predictable
Variable = unpredictable

🧠 6.4 Observational Learning

Observational learning = learning by watching the behavior of another person and potentially imitating it.

Albert Bandura

Bandura demonstrated the importance of observational learning through the Bobo doll experiment.

Children watched adults interact with a Bobo doll. Children who observed aggressive behavior were more likely to reproduce aggressive behaviors themselves.

Modeling

A model is someone whose behavior is observed and potentially imitated.

Examples:

• Children copying parents

• Students copying teachers

• Athletes copying coaches

• Learning a dance from watching someone perform it

⭐ Four steps of observational learning

1. Attention

You must pay attention to the behavior.

2. Retention

You must remember the behavior.

3. Reproduction

You must be capable of performing the behavior.

4. Motivation

You need a reason or motivation to perform the behavior.

Easy memory trick:

A → R → R → M

Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation

🗺 Cognitive Learning

Learning isn’t always immediately visible.

Latent learning

Learning occurs but isn’t demonstrated until there is a reason to show it.

Example:

• A student learns where everything is in a school but doesn’t demonstrate that knowledge until someone asks for directions.

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of an environment.

Example:

• You develop a mental map of your school and know how to get from the classroom to the cafeteria.

🧑‍🔬 Important Researchers

🔥 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Quick way to remember

Classical = “Something happens to me.”

Operant = “I do something, then something happens.”

👀 Observational Learning vs. Conditioning

📚 Chapter 6 — Must-Know Terms

• Learning — change in behavior/knowledge resulting from experience

• Instinct — innate complex behavior

• Reflex — automatic response to a stimulus

• Associative learning — connecting events/stimuli

• Classical conditioning — association between stimuli

• Operant conditioning — behavior influenced by consequences

• Observational learning — learning by watching others

• Acquisition — initial learning

• Extinction — weakening of a learned response

• Spontaneous recovery — return of an extinguished response

• Generalization — responding similarly to similar stimuli

• Discrimination — distinguishing between stimuli

• Reinforcement — increases behavior

• Punishment — decreases behavior

• Positive — add something

• Negative — remove something

• Modeling — imitating another person’s behavior

• Latent learning — learning that isn’t immediately demonstrated

• Cognitive map — mental representation of an environment