Philosphy study guide
Cartesian Dualism
Cartesian Dualism: The distinction between mind (non-material) and body (material).
Descartes argues that the mind and body are separate substances that interact with each other.
Descartes and Cartesian Dualism
Descartes: Foundational figure in modern philosophy.
Famous dictum: “Cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”).
This statement is a declaration of self-awareness and serves as the starting point for certain knowledge.
Spinoza and Monism
Spinoza: Advocate of monism, the idea that everything is part of a single, unified substance (often equated with God or Nature).
Mind and body are not separate but different attributes of the same substance.
Monism: The view that only one kind of substance or reality exists, in contrast to dualism.
Immanuel Kant
Categorical Imperative: Kant’s central ethical principle, stating that actions should only be taken according to maxims that can be universally applied.
Transcendental Idealism: Kant's theory that our experience of the world is shaped by the structures of the mind; we can only know things as they appear through our mental faculties, not as they are in themselves.
Hegel and Dialectics
Dialectics: A method of philosophical argument that reconciles opposites.
Hegel's dialectics: Involves development through contradictions and their resolutions.
Hegelian Dialectics: Unfolding of reality via successive negations (thesis-antithesis-synthesis).
Nietzsche
“God is dead”: Nietzsche suggests that traditional religious and metaphysical beliefs are irrelevant in modern society.
Hegel’s Dialectical Method: Explains historical and philosophical development through contradictions leading to synthesis.
Schopenhauer and 'The World As Will and Representation'
Schopenhauer: Argues that fundamental reality is will, an irrational, blind force underlying all existence.
The World as Will and Representation: This work examines the interplay between human perception (representation) and the underlying irrational will.
Marx and Dialectical Materialism
Dialectical Materialism: Marx’s adaptation of Hegelian dialectics focusing on material conditions over abstract ideas.
Alienation: Central to Marx’s theory, workers become estranged from their labor products, essence, and each other.
Commodity Fetishism: The belief that commodities hold intrinsic value independent of labor, obscuring the social relations behind production.
Base and Superstructure: Marx's theory that the economic base shapes the political, legal, and ideological superstructure.
False Consciousness: Refers to the misperceptions of the oppressed classes supporting ruling class interests.
Übermensch and Scientific Falsification
Übermensch: Nietzsche’s concept of the “overman” who transcends conventional morality.
Falsification: Popper’s criterion that scientific theories must be falsifiable; they must allow for possible disproof.
Bad Faith and The ‘Other’
Bad Faith: Sartre’s term for self-deception to avoid confronting personal freedom and responsibility.
The ‘Other’: De Beauvoir’s idea that women are historically defined as the "Other" in relation to men, viewed as the norm.
Eternal Return
Nietzsche’s concept that life events repeat infinitely, urging individuals to live as if they must repeat their lives eternally.
Karl Popper and Logical Positivism
Logical Positivism: Philosophy claiming meaningful statements must be empirically verifiable or logically necessary.
Jean-Paul Sartre and Existentialism
Existentialism: A philosophical movement emphasizing personal freedom, choice, and responsibility.
Existence precedes essence: Sartre’s assertion that humans are born without predetermined essence and must define themselves through actions.
Simone de Beauvoir and Feminism
The Second Sex: Foundational feminist text examining the conditions leading to women’s oppression.
“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman”: De Beauvoir’s argument that gender is a social and existential construct.
Frantz Fanon
The Other: Fanon’s exploration of colonial identity, where colonized individuals are seen as the 'Other' by colonizers.
Black Skin, White Masks: Examination of the psychological effects of colonization and internalized racial stereotypes.
The Wretched of the Earth: Fanon’s discussion of the dehumanizing impacts of colonization and the urgency of violent revolution for liberation.
Deontology
Core Idea: Deontology emphasizes adherence to rules or duties regardless of consequences; actions are morally obligatory or forbidden by nature.
Key Philosopher: Immanuel Kant, who stresses that actions should follow universal maxims.
Example: The prohibition against lying, even if it could lead to a positive outcome.
Consequentialism
Core Idea: Morality is determined by the outcomes of actions; the rightness/wrongness depends on contribution to overall good.
Key Theory: Utilitarianism, associated with Bentham and Mill, asserts the morally right action produces greatest happiness for the greatest number.
Virtue Ethics
Core Idea: Focuses on developing virtuous character traits rather than on actions alone.
Key Philosopher: Aristotle, emphasizing the “golden mean” between excess and deficiency in moral virtues.
Example: Questioning what a virtuous person would do in a given challenging situation.
Pragmatism
Core Idea: A practical approach to ethics focusing on effective solutions and outcomes rather than rigid adherence to abstract principles.
Key Philosophers: William James, Charles Peirce, and John Dewey.
Example: Evaluating actions based on their practical results in moral dilemmas.
Philosophical Schools
Cynicism
Core Idea: Advocates for living in harmony with nature and rejecting societal conventions.
Key Philosopher: Diogenes of Sinope, known for his extreme ascetic lifestyle rejecting materialism.
Example: Diogenes living in a barrel, searching for an honest man.
Stoicism
Core Idea: Virtue is sufficient for happiness; control reactions to external events for tranquility.
Key Philosophers: Zeno, Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius.
Example: Focusing on emotional control when facing adversity.
Epicureanism
Core Idea: Pursuit of intellectual and emotional pleasures over physical ones for happiness.
Key Philosopher: Epicurus—argues for moderation and simple pleasures.
Example: Engaging in healthy, simple pleasures rather than excess.
Pyrrhonism
Core Idea: Asserts that certainty is unattainable; advocates suspending judgment for tranquility.
Key Philosopher: Pyrrho of Elis, influencing later skepticism.
Example: Advocating focus on a tranquil life without seeking definitive answers.
Eastern Philosophies: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
Shared focus on existence, suffering, and liberation.
Hinduism
Core Ideas: Concepts include dharma, karma, moksha, and atman.
Ethics: Emphasizes living according to dharma, along with self-realization.
Buddhism
Core Ideas: Life as suffering; path to liberation is through the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
Ethics: Compassion, mindfulness, and non-harm.
Jainism
Core Ideas: Focus on non-violence and the liberation of the soul.
Ethics: Centered on life respect, strict dietary practices, and ethical purity.
The Blind Men and the Elephant
A parable illustrating limited human perception on complex truths based on individual perspectives.