Disorders Chapter

Psychological Disorders Study Notes

Page 1: Introduction

• Myers’ Psychology for APDavid G. MyersNote: AP is a trademark owned by the College Board, not involved in the product's production.

Page 2: Overview of Abnormal Psychology

• Focus on understanding abnormal psychology and psychological disorders.

Page 3: Essential Questions

• Key questions to consider:

  • How do we define psychological disorders?

  • How should we classify psychological disorders?

  • What distinguishes abnormal thoughts/behaviors from psychological disorders?

Page 4: Definition of Psychological Disorders

• Disorder: a state of ill mental/behavioral health.

• Patterns of Symptoms: Collection of symptoms that tend to occur together; not merely isolated symptoms.

• Characteristics of Disorders:

  • Deviance: Different from societal norms.

  • Distress: Causes personal distress.

  • Dysfunction/Maladaptive: Interferes with daily functioning (e.g., social and occupational).

• Example of change in diagnosis: Homosexuality removed as a disorder by APA in 1973.

Page 5: Continuum of Normality and Abnormality

• Visual representation of abnormal behavior as a continuum from normal to abnormal through:

  • Deviance

  • Personal distress

  • Maladaptive behavior.

Page 6: Contextual Definitions of Psychological Disorders

• Definitions vary across cultures and contexts; **Key Definitions: **

  • Psychological disorders have significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

  • Cultural examples:

    • USA: ADHD, Bulimia.

    • Taijin Kyofusho (Japan): Fear of offending others regarding personal bodily functions and appearance.

Page 7: Culture-Bound Syndromes

• Windigo Psychosis: Among Algonquin Indians in North America; involves delusions of being possessed by a flesh-eating monster.

• Koro: Acute anxiety disorder in males primarily in China where they fear their penis is disappearing.

Page 8: Is ADHD a Disorder?

• Considerations for Diagnosis:

  • Is it deviant?

  • Is it distressful?

  • Does it cause dysfunction?

Page 9: Historical Understanding of Disorders (Medical Model)

• Historical treatments: trephination, exorcisms, blood transfusions.

• Philippe Pinel: Reformer who viewed mental illness as sickness and emphasized humane treatments.

Page 10: The Medical Model

• Medical Model: Mental illness is diagnosed via symptoms and treated through therapy and treatment methods including psychiatric hospitals.

Page 11: Epigenetics and the Biopsychosocial Model

• Epigenetics: Study of how environmental factors influence gene expression affecting psychiatric disorders like depression and schizophrenia.

• Biopsychosocial Approach: Interactions of biological, psychological, and social factors.

Page 12: Components of the Biopsychosocial Approach

• Biological Influences: Genetics, brain structure.

• Psychological Influences: Stress, trauma, mood-related perceptions.

• Social-Cultural Influences: Cultural definitions and societal expectations of normality.

Page 13: History of DSM

• 1840 Census: Recorded instances of "idiocy/insanity."

• Categories by 1880: Various forms of mental illness recognized.

• DSM-I: First edition published in 1952 with 60 disorders.

Page 14: Importance of Classifying Disorders

• Value of Diagnosis:

  1. Creates shorthand for symptoms.

  2. Facilitates statistical studies.

  3. Guides treatment options.

• DSM-V: Latest version, aids in defining conditions like autism.

Page 15: Characteristics of DSM

• DSM Description: Symptoms, not treatments.

• ICD-10: International classification aligning with WHO standards.

• Global Statistics: 450 million affected worldwide.

Page 16: Critiques of DSM

• Concerns:

  1. Over-diagnosing.

  2. Arbitrary distinctions between normality and disorder.

  3. Value judgments in defining disorders.

Page 17: DSM Diagnosis Process (Axes Ignored)

• Description of five axes for assessing psychological disorders (not utilized in DSM-V).

Page 18: General Information on Disorders

• Proliferation from 60 to 400+ disorders based on diagnosis.

• Stigma: Negative perception associated with mental health diagnoses.

• Prevalence Rates:

  • 26% of adults in a given year.

  • 50% lifetime prevalence in Americans.

  • Increasing diagnoses in children.

Page 19: Dangers of Labeling

• David Rosenhan's Study (1973): Examined challenges in shedding "mentally ill" labels. Subjects feigned symptoms, but staff misdiagnosed.

Page 20: Labeling Criticism

• Power of Labels: Can stigmatize and predict behaviors based on perceptions.

Page 21: Type 1 and 2 Errors

• Error Types: Difficulty in distinguishing sanity; higher tendency to mislabel healthy as sick (Type 2 error).

Page 22: Harmful Dysfunction Model

• Criteria for Psychological Disorder: Deviant, distressful, dysfunctional.

Page 23: College Board AP Psychology Standards

• Includes various categories such as anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, personality disorders, etc.

Page 24: Classification of Disorders

• Categories identified for AP psychology include:

  • Eating Disorders

  • ADHD

  • Anxiety Disorders

  • Depression

  • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

  • Schizophrenia

Page 25: Overview of Anxiety Disorders

• Defined as distressing persistent anxiety or nervousness that leads to maladaptive behavior.

Page 26: Types of Anxiety Disorders

• Generalized anxiety disorder, Panic disorder, Phobias, etc.

Page 27: Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

• Persistent, chronic, excessive worry about multiple life aspects for 6 months or more.

Page 28: GAD Characteristics

• Freud's Free Floating Anxiety: Generalized anxiety that lacks specific cause.

Page 29: Panic Disorders

• Panic Attacks: Sudden intense fear that may occur unexpectedly; symptoms include racing heart, dizziness, terror, etc.

  • Cultural variation: Ataque de Nervios, associated with nervous tension.

Page 30: Agoraphobia and Phobias

• Agoraphobia: Fear of situations where escape may be difficult; often linked to panic attacks.

• Phobias: Irrational fear linked to avoidance behavior.

Page 31: Examples of Phobias

• Common phobias include:

  • Acrophobia (heights)

  • Arachnophobia (spiders)

Page 32-33: Survey Data of Phobias

• Data presentation on various phobia prevalence.

Page 34: Social Anxiety Disorder

• Characterized by excessive fear of social situations and embarrassment.

Page 35: Separation Anxiety Disorder

• Excessive fear of separation from home or caregiver; may exhibit physical symptoms like headaches.

Page 36: OCD Overview

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Characterized by obsessions (repetitive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive actions).

Page 37: Common Symptoms of OCD in Youth

• Obsessions regarding dirt/germs, compulsions like excessive handwashing.

Page 38: OCD Examples

• Scenarios illustrating obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors related to anxiety reduction.

Page 39: Prevalence and Pathophysiology of OCD

• Affects approximately 1 in 50 adults; linked to serotonin dysfunction.

Page 40: OCD-Related Disorders

• New disorders like Hoarding, Excoriation, and Trichotillomania added to OCD spectrum.

Page 41: Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders

• Disorders manifest after trauma; includes Reactive Attachment Disorder and PTSD.

Page 42: PTSD Symptoms

• Symptoms like hypervigilance, flashbacks, emotional detachment emerge from traumatic stressors.

Page 43: Learning Perspective on Anxiety Disorders

• Theories on how anxiety develops through classical conditioning and reinforcement.

Page 44: Biological Perspective on Anxiety Disorders

• Genetic links to anxiety disorders; neurotransmitters like glutamate and GABA involved.

Page 45: Brain Imaging and OCD

• PET scans show high activity in areas related to attention during OCD.

Page 46: FRQ on Phobia Perspectives

• Discuss phobias through various psychological lenses (behavioral, psychoanalytic, biological, cognitive).

Page 47: Somatic Symptom Disorders

• Definition: Disorders causing physical symptoms without an identifiable physical cause.

Page 48: Types of Somatic Disorders

• Causes psychological issues to manifest physically; includes Illness Anxiety Disorder and Factitious Disorder.

Page 49: Conversion Disorder

• Physical symptoms without physiological reasons; example includes paralysis.

Page 50: Introduction to Dissociative Disorders

• Rare disorders marked by a change in consciousness and a disconnect from memories.

Page 51: Dissociative Amnesia

• Memory loss concerning stressful events, going beyond typical forgetfulness.

Page 52: Dissociative Fugue

• Inability to recall oneself, potentially beginning a new life away from former identity.

Page 53: Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

• Presence of two or more distinct personalities; often related to severe childhood trauma.

Page 54: DID Characteristics

• Increased prevalence in North America; linked to severe abuse in childhood.

Page 55: Critique of DID

• Increased diagnoses raise questions on authenticity and therapist influence.

Page 56: Derealization/Depersonalization Disorder

• Persistent feelings of detachment or unreality; symptoms can be disturbing.

Page 57: Overview of Mood Disorders

• Classification of depressive and manic disorders.

Page 58: Depressive Disorders

• Types include Major Depressive Disorder, Persistent Depressive Disorder, and Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD).

Page 59: Major Depressive Disorder

• Symptoms include prolonged unhappiness and loss of interest with possible suicidal ideation.

Page 60: Persistent Depressive Disorder

• Chronic depression lasting over two years; characterized by a consistently low mood.

Page 61: Genetic Influences on Depression

• Familial links; risks increase with early onset depression in parents.

Page 62: Biochemical Influences in Depression

• Low levels of norepinephrine and serotonin contribute to mood disorders.

Page 63: Social-Cognitive Perspective on Depression

• Negative thought patterns and learned helplessness correlated with mental states.

Page 64: Explanatory Style Examples and Depression

• Different cognitive interpretations of personal events affect mental health.

Page 65: Cycle of Depression

• Stressors can lead to a cycle of depressed mood and cognitive distortions.

Page 66: Aaron Beck's Contributions

• Father of cognitive therapy; emphasized irrational negative thinking in depression.

Page 67: Cognitive Errors in Depression

• Common fallacies include overgeneralizing, selective abstraction, and dichotomous thinking.

Page 68: Biopsychosocial Model of Mood Disorders

• Integrative approach including biological, psychological, and social influences.

Page 69: Bipolar and Related Disorders

• Bipolar disorder characterized by mood swings; contains manic episodes interspersed with depressive states.

Page 70: Mania Features

• Symptoms include euphoric mood, impulsive behavior, and inflated sense of self.

Page 71: Hypomania

• Less extreme form of mania; affects decision-making and behavior.

Page 72: Bipolar Types

• Distinction between Bipolar I (severe mania) and Bipolar II (hypomanic episodes).

Page 73: Diagnosis of Bipolar II

• Recognize the subtle signs of hypomania alongside recurrent depression.

Page 74: Etiology of Bipolar Disorder

• Involvement of neurotransmitters like norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine.

Page 75: PET Scan of Mood States

• Demonstrated brain energy fluctuations between depressed and manic states.

Page 76: Vulnerability to Mood Disorders

• Increased vulnerability in women; early onset linked to exacerbated conditions.

Page 77: Genetic Basis of Bipolar Disorder

• Heritability and increased risk factors linked to family history.

Page 78: Brain Activity in Mood Disorders

• Differential activity patterns during depressive versus manic episodes.

Page 79: Overview of Schizophrenia Spectrum

• Characterization of disorders causing disorganized thoughts and perceptions.

Page 80: Schizophrenia Symptoms

• Symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, and inappropriate emotional responses.

Page 81: Understanding Schizophrenia

• Classification of symptoms into positive, negative, and cognitive categories.

Page 82: Subtypes of Schizophrenia

• Historically characterized by various types (e.g., paranoid, disorganized) – not recognized in DSM-5.

Page 83: Disorganized Thinking Symptoms

• Manifestations include delusions of reference, persecution, and incoherent speech (word salad).

Page 84: Disturbed Perceptions Symptoms

• Common types of hallucinations: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory.

Page 85: Symptoms of Schizophrenia: Negative Symptoms

• Emotional blunting and inappropriate behavior like flat affect or catatonic states.

Page 86: Associated Behaviors in Schizophrenia

• Erratic social behaviors stemming from delusions, misunderstandings, and threats.

Page 87: Schizoaffective and Delusional Disorders

• Classification involving moods and delusions, some of which are possible and bizarre.

Page 88: Dopamine Hypothesis

• Excessive dopamine levels correlate with positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Page 89: Brain Pathology in Schizophrenia

• Brain regions implicated include the limbic system and frontal lobes, affecting emotional regulation.

Page 90: Schizophrenia Onset Statistics

• Rates and onset of schizophrenia; patterns observed in genetic studies.

Page 91: Brain Abnormalities in Schizophrenia

• Imaging shows reduced volume and activity in key brain regions.

Page 92: Role of Maternal Factors

• Research on the connection between maternal health during pregnancy and child mental health outcomes.

Page 93: Genetic Factors in Schizophrenia

• Support for genetic predisposition and the stress-vulnerability hypothesis.

Page 94: Medication Side Effects

• Discussion on tardive dyskinesia associated with long-term antipsychotic use.

Page 95: Introduction to Neurodevelopmental Disorders

• Defined by atypical brain development or damage; includes Autism Spectrum Disorder, ADHD.

Page 96: Key Neurodevelopmental Disorders

• Overview of Autism Spectrum Disorder and ADHD characteristics.

Page 97: Specific Learning and Conceptual Disorders

• Defined categories for learning disorders affecting education; Genetic influences noted.

Page 98: Intellectual Disability

• Previously known as mental retardation; characterized by limitations in cognitive function.

Page 99: Communication Disorders

• Explains various communication challenges, highlighting the importance of early diagnosis.

Page 100: Neurocognitive Disorders

• Conditions affecting cognition due to medical issues rather than psychiatric diagnoses.

Page 101: Alzheimer's Disease

• Symptomatic summary of Alzheimer's as a type of dementia affecting memory.

Page 102: Dementia vs. Alzheimer's

• Comparison of symptoms and causative factors differentiating dementia and specific diseases like Alzheimer's.

Page 103: Eating Disorders

• Categories including Pica, Rumination, Anorexia, Bulimia, and Restrictive Food Intake Disorder.

Page 104: Personality Disorders Overview

• Defined as disorders characterized by enduring, maladaptive behavior patterns.

Page 105: Personality Disorder Clusters

• Cluster A: Odd/eccentric behaviors.

• Cluster B: Dramatic/emotional/erratic behaviors.

• Cluster C: Anxious/fearful behaviors.

Page 106: Paranoid Personality Disorder

• Characterized by distrust and suspicion of others, interpreting innocuous remarks as threats.

Page 107: Schizoid Personality Disorder

• Lacks interest in social relationships and often emotionally detached.

Page 108: Schizotypal Personality Disorder

• Displays eccentric thoughts/behaviors; possible magical thinking and odd social perceptions.

Page 109: Antisocial Personality Disorder

• Lack of conscience and regard for the law; manipulative behavior; prevalent among males.

Page 110: Characteristics of Antisocial Personality

• Includes lack of remorse, impulsive behavior patterns, and social irresponsibility.

Page 111: Borderline Personality Disorder

• Instability in mood and relationships; fear of abandonment and impulsive behaviors.

Page 112: Narcissistic Personality Disorder

• Characterized by grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy; often leads to abusive behaviors.

Page 113: Histrionic Personality Disorder

• Seeking attention through dramatic behavior; shallow emotional experiences; vulnerable to external influence.

Page 114: Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder

• Perfectionism and a preoccupation with order; behaviors interfere with functioning.

Page 115: Dependent Personality Disorder

• Excessive emotional reliance on others; fear of abandonment; difficulty making independent decisions.

Page 116: Avoidant Personality Disorder (AVPD)

• Characterized by fear of rejection and extreme social anxiety; broader avoidance than social anxiety disorder.

Page 117: Distinction between AVPD and Social Phobia

• Highlight differences in avoidance behavior and social functioning impairment.

Page 118: Perspectives on Disorders

• Overview of various psychological perspectives on disorders, including behavioral, cognitive, biological, and psychoanalytic.