Exhaustive Biology End-of-Year Study Guide

The scientific method involves a logical progression or sequence of steps used to investigate phenomena: * Question: Identifying the problem or inquiry. * Hypothesis: Forming a testable explanation or prediction. * Experiment: Conducting tests to validate the hypothesis. * Data: Collecting information and observations from the experiment. * Conclusion: Interpreting the data to determine if the hypothesis was supported.
Independent variable: The specific factor in an experiment that is intentionally changed or manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent variable: The factor in an experiment that is measured or observed to see how it responds to the independent variable.
Control: A standard used for constant comparison to ensure the results are due to the independent variable.
Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world.
Law: A concise statement that describes an observed pattern in nature.

Atoms: The fundamental building blocks of matter, consisting of three subatomic particles: * Protons: Particles with a positive charge ( $+$ ). * Neutrons: Particles with a neutral charge ( $0$ ). * Electrons: Particles with a negative charge ( $-$ ).
Water: Exhibits unique properties essential for life: * Polarity: Water molecules are polar, having uneven charge distribution. * Cohesion: The attraction between water molecules. * Adhesion: The attraction between water molecules and different substances. * High specific heat: The ability of water to resist changes in temperature.
Macromolecules: The four primary categories of organic molecules: * Carbs (Carbohydrates): Serve as a primary source of energy. * Lipids: Utilized for long-term energy storage. * Proteins: Function as enzymes that facilitate biochemical reactions. * Nucleic acids: The genetic materials including DNA and RNA.

Cell theory: The foundational biological principle stating that all living things are composed of cells.
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic: A fundamental distinction between simpler cells lacking a nucleus (Prokaryotic) and more complex cells containing a nucleus and specialized organelles (Eukaryotic).
Organelles: Membrane-bound structures with specific functions: * Nucleus: The control center of the cell. * Mitochondria: The powerhouse of the cell, generating energy. * Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis. * Membrane: The outer boundary (cell membrane) that regulates what enters and leaves the cell. * Chloroplast: The site of photosynthesis in plant cells.

Diffusion: The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration ( $\text{high} \rightarrow \text{low}$ ).
Osmosis: The specific movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane.
Active transport: A mode of transport that requires the expenditure of energy to move substances against a concentration gradient.
Homeostasis: The process of maintaining a stable internal balance within a biological system.

The chemical process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the following balanced equation:
$6CO_2 + 6H_2O \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$

The set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP):
$C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + ATP$

Stages: Mitosis occurs in four sequential stages: 1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase
Outcome: The process results in the production of $2$ identical daughter cells from a single parent cell.

Outcome: The process results in the production of $4$ different (genetically unique) daughter cells.
Chromosome Count: Meiosis produces daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes compared to the parent cell.
Genetic Variation: Variation is achieved through mechanisms such as crossing over.

Base Pairing: In the DNA double helix, specific nitrogenous bases pair together: * Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) ( $A-T$ ). * Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G) ( $C-G$ ).
Processes: The central dogma of molecular biology involves three key processes: * Replication: Copying the DNA molecule. * Transcription: Synthesizing RNA from a DNA template. * Translation: Synthesizing proteins from an RNA template.
Genes and Alleles: Genes determine traits, and alleles are different versions of a gene.

Dominant vs Recessive: Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles.
Punnett squares: Tools used to predict the probability of genotypes and phenotypes in offspring.
Ratios: A standard Mendelian monohybrid cross typically yields a $3:1$ phenotype ratio.

Natural selection: The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Survival of the fittest: A mechanistic description of natural selection.
Evidence: Scientific evidence supporting evolution includes: * Fossils: The remains or traces of organisms from the past. * DNA: Comparative analysis of genetic sequences showing relationships between species.

Levels of Organization: The hierarchy of ecological study progresses from the individual level to the broad ecosystem level ( $\text{organism} \rightarrow \text{ecosystem}$ ).
Relationships: Interactions between different species include: * Mutualism: A relationship where both organisms benefit. * Parasitism: A relationship where one organism benefits at the expense of the other.
Food chains: A linear sequence of organisms through which energy and nutrients pass.

Essential systems of the human body include: * Circulatory system: Responsible for the transport of blood and nutrients. * Respiratory system: Responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. * Digestive system: Responsible for breaking down food and absorbing nutrients. * Nervous system: Responsible for transmitting signals between different parts of the body.