ALAN DAVIS

Chapter 1 History and 'definitions'

• Purpose of the Edinburgh Textbooks in Applied Linguistics (ETAL) series: contemporary view of applied linguistics; aim to bridge theory and practice; a theorising discipline drawing on related theories and professional experience.
• ETAL series is premised on: a two-way relationship between theory and practice; openness to other approaches; coherence through cross-cutting concerns rather than a single method.
• The second edition of Davies’s An Introduction to Applied Linguistics (2nd ed., Edinburgh University Press) updates the previous edition (1999) and notes two wholly new chapters: 1 and 8; the volume now comprises ten ETAL volumes and broader coverage.
• Definitions of applied linguistics are contested: there is no single consensus; the field is a mediation between theory and practice, drawing on linguistics, psychology, education, sociolinguistics, etc.
• Ostensive vs. dictionary-type definitions:
  • Ostensive/“look around you” approach (Spolsky’s view, etc.): field defined by what professionals actually do; diverse semi-autonomous sub-disciplines; field is a cover term for activities in language use, language teaching, language planning, etc. (Spolsky 2005; Cook 2003; Davies 2004).
  • Dictionary/ core-definition approach (e.g., Widdowson, Cook): emphasize a bounded core of language knowledge and decision-making; “the task of applied linguistics is to mediate between linguistics and language use” (Cook 2003: 20).
• Core working definitions and debates:
  • Brumfit (1997a, 1997b) emphasizes the theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world problems in which language is central.
  • Kaplan and Baldauf (2005) and related sources frame applied linguistics as language planning and education in practice.
  • Davies (2001, 2004) notes the shift from a strict linguistics-applied vs. applied-linguistics dichotomy to a more integrated view that foregrounds the target outcomes (language teaching, policy, etc.) while retaining theory-driven enquiry.
• Source and target framework:
  • Source: what applied linguistics draws on (linguistics, psychology, sociology, education, measurement theory, etc.).
  • Target: what applied linguistics equips you to do (language teaching, language planning, assessment, policy, etc.).
  • The target is usually narrowing to language-teaching and language-use in real-world settings; the source remains multi-disciplinary.
• Historical note on the field’s identity:
  • Davies stresses that the field has long debated whether it should be language-teaching-focused or broader (language-use, policy, etc.); eight volumes since 1999 illustrate growing breadth beyond TEFL toward a wider set of language-problem contexts.
• Foundational chasm and synthesis:
  • The book argues for a synthesis where theory informs practice and practice informs theory, avoiding a simplistic “science of everything” position.
• Key takeaway: Applied linguistics is best viewed as a theorising discipline that links practical language use to conceptual frameworks drawn from multiple disciplines, with a continual re-definition of its core concerns as the field evolves.

Chapter 2 Doing being applied linguists: the importance of experience

• Introduction: Chapter 2 foregrounds the centrality of individual experience in applied linguistics and discusses its limits.
• The role of personal experience:
  • Applied linguists bring personal experience of language problems; reflection on experience is a core skill, particularly when teaching applied linguistics to undergraduates who may lack practical language-teaching experience.
  • Post-experience graduates may illuminate problems via intuition and practical insight; the undergraduate experience may be more unreal or idealized.
• The professionalization and institutional context:
  • The International Association of Applied Linguistics (AILA) and the International scene: ETAL Series grew out of a need to link theory and practice across professional language use.
  • AILA’s commissions and networks (e.g., discourse analysis, language policy, literacy, translation, etc.) illustrate the field’s breadth and risk of “anything linguistics” umbrella without theory.
• Seven case studies (Chapter 4 in text but introduced here as 4 case studies) used to illustrate the range of activities:
  1) Language-programme evaluation
  2) Literacy acquisition
  3) Pedagogical grammar
  4) Workplace communication
  5) Language and identity
  6) Assessing English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)
  7) Critical pedagogy (CAL)
• Four pairs of study areas described to illustrate range of research and development:
  • Language assessment vs. development; language planning; language-teaching curriculum; SLA.
• Development vs. research in applied linguistics:
  • The book emphasizes that applied linguistics often blends development (practice-oriented) with research (theory-driven inquiry).
  • The role of OC (units such as ESP, SLA, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, etc.) in core curricula in training programs.
• AILAs and institutional training:
  • The evolution of undergraduate and graduate training across Europe, the USA, Australia, and Asia shows increasing consistency in core linguistic analysis and research methods, with options (e.g., statistics, translation) depending on the program.
• Four areas of development and research in applied linguistics:
  • Language assessment
  • Language planning
  • Language-teaching curriculum
  • Second-language acquisition
• Practical implication: The field’s work is problem-driven; case studies reveal how real-world concerns shape methodological choices and theoretical commitments.
• Concluding note: The applied linguist’s role is to develop explanations that generalize across contexts, not to provide universal prescriptions; the field thrives on pluralism, critical engagement, and a broad disciplinary base.

Chapter 3 Language and language practices

• Core proposition: The relationship between linguistics and applied linguistics concerns how different perspectives explain the same language phenomena.
• Two broad vantage points:
  • Language in situation (linguistics vs. applied): how language operates in social contexts; study of language use, sociolinguistics, discourse, etc.
  • Language in gender and clinical linguistics: how language interacts with gender, identity, power, and clinical impairments; these areas can be pursued by linguists and by applied linguists with different aims.
• Two faces of perspective:
  • Linguistics tends to emphasize change and variation (diachronic) and the abstract rules of language (grammar).
  • Applied linguistics emphasizes stability, accessibility, and the social uses of language to facilitate interaction and policy development.
• Language in situ (examples and contrasts):
  • The linguist: tests theory using stable data (e.g., Labov-style sociolinguistic work) to confirm or refine theories of language variation.
  • The applied linguist: examines language in social settings (education, policy, workplace) and seeks practical interventions or programmatic changes.
• Language and gender: overview of how gender affects language use and how language encodes power dynamics; analysis extends from sociolinguistics into applied fields (inclusive language, gendered pronouns, sexism in lexicon and discourse).
• Clinical linguistics: applied work with language impairment (aphasias, dyslexia, dysarthria) and the role of the speech-language pathologist; the applied linguist’s role includes diagnosis, pedagogy, and interventional tools.
• The dichotomy: linguists vs. applied linguists converge on language problems but diverge in aims (theory vs. practice). The applied linguist emphasizes context, intervention, and stakeholder impact.
• Summary takeaway: Language is best studied with multiple lenses (social context, power, identity) and the applied linguist contributes by linking linguistic descriptions to real-world consequences and policy needs.

Chapter 4 Applied linguistics and language learning/teaching

• Central controversy: Should applied linguistics be restricted to second-language teaching and teacher education, or should it address broader language-use problems in society?
• Two key problems used to illustrate the field’s scope:
  1) The optimum age problem: when should learners begin second-language learning for best outcomes?
  2) Validation/utility of a large-scale proficiency test (ELTS) and its successor IELTS: how well do tests predict success in real-world academic settings?
• Case examples illustrating local context vs. generalizable conclusions:
  • Presbyterian Ladies’ College (Melbourne, private girls’ school): early-start French in primary vs. starting later in secondary; findings show two years of primary exposure did not confer clear long-term advantages in all aspects of language learning; pronunciation showed some advantage but overall performance differences were not uniform.
  • English teaching in Nepal: early English vs. later introduction; policy decisions reflect political considerations as much as pedagogical ones; the optimum age is not universal but context-dependent.
  • Immersion language teaching in Canada: shows success under four conditions (parental involvement, community majority status, positive attitudes toward target language, optional program).
• Other important areas in Chapter 4:
  • Language testing and assessment: the ELTS project analyzed educational, social, psycholinguistic, anthropological, political, religious, economic, business, planning/policy, and linguistic factors in evaluating the test; issues of validity, reliability, bias across modules (e.g., Life Sciences vs. Social Studies), and washback on teaching.
  • The role of ESP (English for Specific Purposes) and the tension between a unitary view of language proficiency and multiple language factors; the idea that language for specific purposes may require content knowledge beyond linguistic proficiency.
  • Curriculum design and development: the need for a coherent plan linking needs analysis, objectives, materials, and evaluation; the role of the teacher in adapting plan to local contexts; the distinction between curriculum (broad purposes) and syllabus (content and methods).
• Four major contributions of applied linguistics to language teaching:
  • Provision of new insights into how language is learned in context (SLA in context).
  • Development of ESP/LSP materials tailored to specific domains.
  • Design of pedagogical grammars and task-based learning tasks.
  • Evaluation designs for courses, materials, and teaching approaches, including classroom-based assessment.
• Conclusion: The scope of applied linguistics in language learning/teaching is broad and context-dependent; it integrates theory, method, and policy to guide education rather than prescribing universal methods.

Chapter 5 Applied linguistics and language use

• Focus: problems outside institutional language learning—correctness, forensic linguistics, applied stylistics, lexicography, and language treatment (artificial languages).
• Core claim: applied linguistics identifies and analyses real-world language problems in their social contexts; provides options and explanations rather than prescribing a single solution.
• Topics covered:
  • Language correctness and prescriptivism: debates about “correct” English, evolution of usage, the impact of public debate on language norms, and the applied linguist’s role in explaining language change and guiding usage.
  • Forensic linguistics: linguistic evidence in legal contexts; transcription accuracy, speech style, and the reliability of interpreted testimony; the applied linguist’s role in evaluating transcripts, and in designing better language-related evidence in legal settings.
  • Applied stylistics: how linguistic analysis can illuminate literature and non-literary texts; the application of stylistics to teaching and to media texts; the role of reader response and pragmatics in meaning-making.
  • Lexicography: the linguistics of dictionary-making; the training of lexicographers; the balance between descriptive accuracy and prescriptive norms; the ethics and politics of inclusion/exclusion of terms; the role of the dictionary as an ongoing negotiation with a living language.
  • Language treatment (linguae artificialis): artificial and modified languages (Volapük, Esperanto, Interlingua, Basic English); their history, rationale, and limits; the applied linguist’s stance toward artificial languages given real-world needs and language diversity.
• Key recurring theme: applied linguistics engages with social power, identity, and ethical concerns; it is not neutral, and its interventions should be examined for social impact and fairness.
• Conclusion: The field applies linguistic knowledge to a broad set of language-use problems beyond teaching and learning and remains anchored in social context, ethics, and practical consequences.

Chapter 6 The professionalising of applied linguists

• The “flight to the professions” since the 1960s: a move from ad hoc training to formal degree programs; development of professional associations and standards.
• Early institutional history (Edinburgh): the School of Applied Linguistics (1959) and its role in training overseas teachers; expansion to other UK universities (Bangor, Leeds, London, Reading, Essex).
• Source vs. target in training:
  • Source: linguistics and related disciplines; evolving inclusion of psychology, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, SLA, etc.
  • Target: TESOL and language-teacher education; later broader aims (language policy, planning, etc.).
• The professionalising process:
  • Formal degrees and certifications; creation of professional associations (BAAL in the UK; AAAL in North America).
  • The emergence of journals (Language Testing, IRAL, TESOL Quarterly, Applied Linguistics, etc.) and the role of cross-disciplinary editorial boards.
• Ethics in applied linguistics:
  • Codes of practice (BAAL 1994) address responsibilities to sponsors, clients, informants, students, and the public; concerns about data ownership, publication rights, and contract issues.
  • The ethics of collaboration, authorship, data sharing, and the potential for power imbalances in international collaborations; issues of consent and appropriation in fieldwork.
• Tensions in the profession:
  • Balancing theory and practice; ensuring coherence without stifling innovation; dealing with the risk of fragmentation through specialization.
  • Debates about strong vs. weak professions; whether entry controls and licensing are necessary or desirable in applied linguistics.
• The broader significance: professionalisation supports accountability, standards, and ethical practice; it also preserves a space for critical reflection on the social implications of language-related interventions.

Chapter 7 Applied linguistics: no ‘bookish theoric’

• Postmodern influence: the rise of critical applied linguistics (CAL), critical discourse analysis (CDA), and related “critical” approaches; concern with power, ideology, and social justice in language use.
• Core claims of postmodernism and CAL:
  • Challenge grand theories and universal explanations; focus on local, situated, and contested knowledge claims;
  • Emphasis on discourse, ideology, and social context; critique of language policy and language planning as sites of power.
• Main critics and debates:
  • Widdowson critiques some CDA/CAL approaches as overly programmatic and determinist; asserts the need for theory and falsifiability.
  • Rampton argues for an open field of inquiry rather than a single coherent theory; warns against over-structuring applied linguistics as a single unified project.
  • Pennycook advocates critical pedagogy, linking language teaching to social and political awareness; emphasises student voice and the students’ histories and contexts.
• The tension between openness and coherence:
  • CAL challenges the idea of a single authoritative theory; proponents argue for empowering learners and teachers; critics worry about relativism and the risk of political orthodoxy dominating scholarly objectivity.
• The authors’ stance in Davies: CAL and postmodern approaches are valuable for critique but should not overwhelm the core applied-linguistic enterprise, which remains anchored in explaining real-world language problems and guiding practical action.
• Conclusion: While postmodern and critical theories influence thinking in applied linguistics, the discipline benefits from maintaining a balance between critique, theory, and practical intervention, preserving coherence around language problems in use.

Chapter 8 The applied linguistics challenge

• Central question: what is the status of the native speaker, and how should standard language and norms be defined in a globalized world?
• The native speaker problem:
  • The chapter surveys multiple conceptions of “native speaker”: cognitive/being perspectives (L1 acquisition in childhood) vs. sociolinguistic/doing perspectives (attained or social-use definitions).
  • A central tension: the standard language as an idealized social construct; the native speaker as social fact; the standard language is used as a goal in language teaching, while actual usage varies widely.
• Prototype theory as a resolution attempt:
  • Escudero and Sharwood-Smith propose prototype theory to describe nativeness as a gradient with core (prototypical) and peripheral features; this clarifies which features are essential and which are variable.
  • Sorace’s magnitude estimation studies on near-natives show that even advanced learners may have representations that differ systematically from native speakers; NSs vary by region, education, and exposure.
• Barth’s boundaries idea:
  • Socially relevant boundaries matter more than overt differences; membership is often self-ascribed and maintained by social recognition, not just objective criteria.
• Sociolinguistic view vs. SLA view:
  • SLA/psycholinguistic vantage tends to treat nativeness as central; sociolinguistics treats it as a social category that can be fluid and context-dependent.
  • There is a danger of over-reliance on a single norm (native-speaker standard) for judging proficiency, especially as World Englishes grows.
• World Englishes and ELF (English as a Lingua Franca):
  • Seidlhofer’s ELF work highlights that non-native–non-native communication is increasingly common; standard norms may disenfranchise NNSs; the goal is to acknowledge pragmatic competence and intercultural communication rather than enforce a single standard.
• Proposals and implications for assessment and policy:
  • Tests and assessments should consider ELF norms and native-user norms; the aim is fairness and functional proficiency rather than strict adherence to a single native-speaker standard.
  • The chapter connects to broader debates about language policy, education, and global communication.
• Critical issues and responsibility:
  • The applied linguist should weigh normative language judgments against social justice, access, and equal opportunity; the field must balance empirical evidence, social context, and ethical implications.
• Concluding synthesis: The applied linguistics challenge is to reconcile theories of nativeness, variation, and standard language with the realities of multilingual, global communication, while maintaining a stance of responsibility toward learners, users, and societies.

Glossary and key terms (selected highlights)

• a posteriori vs a priori languages: a posteriori uses vocabulary/foundation from existing languages; a priori uses invented elements (e.g., Volapük, Esperanto).
• ELF (English as a Lingua Franca): English used among non-native speakers as a common means of communication.
• ESP (English for Specific Purposes) / LSP (Languages for Specific Purposes): language teaching tailored to specific domains (medicine, law, etc.).
• Ethnography, ethnomethodology: methods for studying social behavior and language use in natural settings.
• Ethico-political concepts: ethical milieu, professional ethics, codes of practice widely discussed in BAAL and other bodies.
• World Englishes: the spread and diversification of English around the world; recognizes local varieties and sociolinguistic realities.
• Prototype theory (Rosch): concepts have core and peripheral features; membership in a category is gradient rather than binary.
• Zone of proximal development (Vygotsky): concept used in sociocultural theory of language learning; learning occurs best with social interaction and guidance.
• Critical applied linguistics (CAL): applying discourse analysis and critical theory to language teaching and policy for social justice; emphasizes power relations and ideology in language.
• Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA): linguistic analysis focused on power/ideology in discourse; critiques social arrangements.
• Postmodernism: philosophical stance skeptical of universal truths and grand narratives; informs debates about knowledge, power, and language.
• Native speaker vs. native user: debates about what constitutes nativeness and how it should be measured or valued in assessment and policy.
• Forensic linguistics: applying linguistic analysis to legal contexts (e.g., interrogation transcripts, testimony).

Connections to practice and real-world relevance

• The ETAL series and Davies’s Introduction anchor applied linguistics in practical problem-solving while maintaining theoretical grounding, which is essential for exam-style understanding.
• Real-world case studies (ELTS evaluation, ESP testing, language-programme evaluation) illustrate how theory translates into policy and practice in diverse contexts (Australia, Nepal, Canada, India).
• Ethical and public-policy implications (data ownership, consent in fieldwork, language rights, ELF norms) emphasize the social responsibility of language professionals.
• The native-speaker debate directly informs language testing, curriculum design, and testing-policy decisions in multilingual classrooms and international contexts.
• The balance between theory and practice, and between standard language norms and world Englishes, is central to contemporary applied linguistics and to language education policy.

Notes on formulas and numerical references

• Numerical references found in the transcript include: 36 languages in Victoria’s VCE; ten volumes in the ETAL series; first edition published 1999; second edition (this edition) updated eight years later; two wholly new chapters in the second edition; etc. In the notes above, key numbers are included where they appear in context.
• There are no explicit mathematical equations in the provided content; where numerical or proportional information is given, it has been included in the notes as plain numbers, with context provided.

Summary of overarching themes

• Applied linguistics is a dynamic, multi-disciplinary, practice-oriented field that theorises language-in-use problems in real-world contexts.
• The field emphasizes the interaction between theory and practice and values a range of approaches, including sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, discourse analysis, and language planning.
• Ethical considerations, professional standards, and responsibility to stakeholders are central to the professionalising of applied linguistics.
• Debates about nativeness, standard language, ELF, and World Englishes shape assessment, curriculum, and policy in global contexts.
• The field remains open to critique and new theories, but maintains coherence around the central mission: to understand and ameliorate language-related problems in society through informed, empirical, and ethically guided practice.

End of notes for chapters 1–8 (overview)