The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Frederic Sorrieu's Vision (1848)
French artist Frederic Sorrieu envisioned a world of "democratic and social republics" in a series of four prints.
Liberty was personified as a female figure, a common practice during the French Revolution.
His utopian vision depicted people grouped as distinct nations, identified by flags and national costumes.
The Emergence of Nationalism in the 19th Century
Nationalism arose as a powerful force, leading to significant political and mental changes in Europe.
These changes resulted in the rise of the nation-state, replacing multi-national dynastic empires.
A modern state is characterized by centralized power and sovereign control over a defined territory.
A nation-state is defined by a sense of common identity and shared history or descent among its citizens, not just its rulers.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation (1789)
The French Revolution marked the first clear expression of nationalism.
Political and constitutional changes transferred sovereignty from the monarchy to French citizens.
The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) promoted a united community with equal rights under a constitution.
The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
Internal customs duties were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
Revolutionaries aimed to liberate other European peoples from despotism.
Students and educated middle classes formed Jacobin clubs, paving the way for French armies into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the 1790s.
The French armies spread the idea of nationalism abroad.
The Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of 1804)
Napoleon, despite restoring a monarchy, implemented revolutionary principles in administration, enhancing rationality and efficiency.
The Napoleonic Code abolished privileges based on birth, establishing equality before the law and securing the right to property.
Administrative divisions were simplified; the feudal system was abolished, freeing peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
Transport and communication systems were improved.
Uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency facilitated trade and capital movement.
Initially welcomed as harbingers of liberty, the French administration faced resistance due to a lack of political freedom.
Increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription outweighed the administrative advantages.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe
Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons with autonomous rulers.
A shared collective identity or common culture was lacking.
The Habsburg Empire ruled over Austria-Hungary, encompassing diverse groups with varying languages and dialects (e.g., Magyar in Hungary).
Loyalty to the emperor was the primary unifying factor.
Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
A landed aristocracy was the dominant class, connected by a shared lifestyle and marriages, but numerically small.
The growth of towns and commercial classes emerged from production for the market.
Industrialization began in England in the late 18th century and spread to France and parts of Germany in the 19th century.
New social groups emerged, including a working-class population and middle classes comprising industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.
Educated, liberal middle classes popularized ideas of national unity and the abolition of aristocratic privileges.
Liberal Nationalism
Liberalism in early 19th-century Europe was associated with freedom for the individual and equality before the law.
It advocated for government by consent, a constitution, and representative government through parliament.
Initially, the right to vote was limited to property-owning men; women and non-propertied men were excluded from political rights.
Opposition movements arose, demanding equal political rights for women and the non-propertied.
Liberalism supported the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
Example: A merchant in 1833 traveling from Hamburg to Nuremberg would have to pass through 11 customs barriers, paying approximately 5% duty at each.
Advocated for a unified economic territory allowing free movement of goods, people, and capital.
The Zollverein customs union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies.
Conservatism After 1815
Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, European governments embraced conservatism.
Conservatives aimed to strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy through modernization.
Modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom were seen as ways to reinforce autocratic monarchies.
Representatives of European powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria) met at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to establish a settlement for Europe.
The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France, which lost territories annexed under Napoleon.
The German Confederation of 39 states set up by Napoleon remained untouched.
Conservative regimes suppressed revolutionary activities and dissent, curbing challenges to autocratic governments.
Revolutionaries
The fear of repression after 1815 drove many liberal-nationalists underground.
Revolutionary action signified opposition to monarchical forms and a commitment to fight for liberty and freedom.
Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, joined the secret society of the Carbonari and was exiled in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
Mazzini believed that nations were intended to be the natural units of mankind.
Secret societies were established in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.
Metternich considered Mazzini the most dangerous enemy of the social order.
The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
Liberalism and nationalism became associated with revolution as conservative regimes consolidated power.
This occurred in regions including Italian and German states, provinces of the Ottoman Empire, Ireland, and Poland.
Metternich: "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold."
The Greek War of Independence mobilized nationalist feelings among educated elites.
Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
Greeks in exile and Western Europeans sympathized with ancient Greek culture.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
Nationalism developed through culture, including art, poetry, stories, and music.
Romanticism, a cultural movement, aimed to cultivate nationalist sentiments.
Romantic artists and poets emphasized emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings over reason and science.
Folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances were seen as expressions of the true spirit of the nation.
Music and language played a significant role in fostering nationalist sentiments.
Karol Kurpinski celebrated national struggles through operas and music, transforming folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
Language became a tool of national resistance, particularly in Poland, where the Russian language was imposed.
Priests and bishops faced imprisonment or exile for refusing to preach in Russian.
Hunger, Hardship, and Popular Revolt
The 1830s were marked by economic hardship in Europe.
The early 19th century saw a significant increase in population, leading to job shortages.
Rural populations migrated to cities, causing overcrowding.
Food shortages and widespread unemployment led to revolts, such as in Paris.
The National Assembly proclaimed a republic, granted suffrage to adult males over 21, and guaranteed the right to work.
In 1845, weavers in Silesia revolted against contractors due to low wages, resulting in violence and casualties.
1848: The Revolution of the Liberals
Led by educated middle classes, demanding constitutionalism and national unification.
They drafted a constitution for a German nation headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
King of Prussia, Wilhelm IV rejected it and opposed the elected assembly.
Opposition from the aristocracy and military grew, eroding the social basis of parliament.
The issue of women's political rights was controversial.
Women participated in political associations, founded newspapers, and engaged in political meetings and demonstrations but were admitted only as observers in visitors' galleries.
Monarchs began to realize that cycles of revolution and repression could be ended by granting concessions to liberal-nationalist movements.
The Making of Germany and Italy
After 1848, nationalism moved away from democracy and revolution.
Germany: Army as Architect of a Nation
Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans but were repressed by the monarchy, military, and large landowners of Prussia.
Prussia led the movement for national unification.
Three wars over seven years—with Austria, Denmark, and France—resulted in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
The nation-building process demonstrated Prussia's dominance.
The new state emphasized modernizing currency, banking, and legal systems.
Italy Unified
Italy had a history of political fragmentation.
Italians were scattered across dynastic states and the Habsburg Empire, divided into seven states.
Italian language lacked a common form and had regional variations.
Giuseppe Mazzini advocated for a unitary Italian Republic and formed Young Italy.
The failure of uprisings in 1831 and 1848 led Sardinia-Piedmont, under King Victor Emmanuel II, to unify Italian states through war.
Unified Italy offered economic development and political dominance.
Much of the Italian population was unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology due to high illiteracy rates.
The Strange Case of Britain
Some scholars argue that Great Britain serves as a model for the nation-state, resulting from a long process.
"United Kingdom of Great Britain" essentially meant England imposing its influence on Scotland.
The British parliament was dominated by English members.
Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
British symbols—flag, national anthem, and the English language—were promoted, while older national identities were subordinated.
Visualizing the Nation
Nations were represented as female figures, serving as allegories.
Marianne, a popular Christian name, symbolized the people's nation in France.
Nationalism and Imperialism
By the late 19th century, nationalism became a narrow creed with limited ends, losing its earlier liberal-democratic ideals.
The Balkans became a major source of nationalist tension after 1871 due to its geographical and ethnic diversity.
European subject nationalities broke away from Ottoman control and declared independence.
The Balkan states competed for territory, leading to intense conflict.
The concept of societies organized into nation-states became widely accepted.