biolog

1. How do plants get nutrients? How do plants assimilate those nutrients?

a. water, soil , air

Plants get nutrients by absorbing water and minerals from the soil through their roots, and carbon dioxide from the air through stomata in their leaves.

b. Plants assimilate nutrients by converting them into organic molecules and building macromolecules (like proteins and cellulose) that become part of the plant’s structure.

2. Metabolism = ? ; Connection between catabolism, anabolism, dehydration, hydrolysis, and how energy is involved

a. Metabolism = the sum of all chemical reactions in a living organism that maintain life.

b. Catabolism: Breaks down molecules,

releases energy (e.g., cellular respiration).

c. Anabolism: Builds complex molecules,

requires energy (e.g., protein synthesis).

d. Dehydration synthesis: Builds polymers by removing water → stores energy.

e. Hydrolysis: Breaks polymers into monomers by adding water → releases energy.

3. Monomers and polymers

a. Of the 4 macromolecules:

• Carbohydrates:

  monomer = monosaccharides,

  polymer = polysaccharides

• Proteins:

  monomer = amino acids,

  polymer = polypeptides

• Nucleic acids:

  monomer = nucleotides,

  polymer = DNA/RNA

• Lipids:

  Monomer: made of glycerol + fatty acids

b. Involved in dehydration or hydrolysis:

• Dehydration synthesis joins monomers → forms polymers, releases water

• Hydrolysis breaks polymers → into monomers, uses water

4. Organization of Digestion

a. Mechanical (involves smooth muscle) and Chemical Digestion (Enzymes)

• Mechanical digestion: physical breakdown (chewing, churning), involves smooth muscle

• Chemical digestion: enzymatic breakdown into monomers

b. What digestion takes place in mouth, stomach, and small intestine and by what enzyme?

• Mouth: mechanical (chewing), chemical (salivary amylase breaks starch)

• Stomach: mechanical (churning), chemical (pepsin breaks proteins)

• Small Intestine: chemical digestion via amylase, trypsin, lipase, nuclease

c. Role of accessory organs and why they are accessory

• Liver: makes bile to digest fat

• Gallbladder: stores/releases bile

• Pancreas: makes enzymes and bicarbonate

• They are “accessory” because food doesn’t pass through them, but they assist digestion.

d. Role of each segment of small intestine

• Duodenum: receives enzymes/bile; digestion

• Jejunum: absorbs most nutrients

• Ileum: absorbs vitamins, bile salts

5. Enzymes

a. 2-word definition: protein catalyst

Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.

b. 3 types of enzyme actions:

• Synthesis (builds molecules)

• Decomposition (breaks down molecules)

• Transfer (moves groups between molecules)

c. Enzymes bind to specific substrates at the active site (lock-and-key model).

They help in digestion by breaking down macromolecules.

6. Synthesis location, location of action, significance, & role

a. Amylase

• Synthesis: Salivary glands & pancreas

• Action: Mouth & small intestine

• Role: Digests starch

b. HCl

• Synthesis: Stomach (parietal cells)

• Action: Stomach

• Role: Activates pepsinogen, kills microbes

c. Pepsinogen

• Synthesis: Stomach (chief cells)

• Action: Stomach

• Role: Turns into pepsin → digests proteins

d. Bile

• Synthesis: Liver

• Action: Small intestine

• Role: Emulsifies fats

e. Nuclease

• Synthesis: Pancreas

• Action: Small intestine

• Role: Breaks down nucleic acids

f. Urea

• Synthesis: Liver

• Action: Excreted by kidneys

• Role: Nitrogen waste product

g. Lipase

• Synthesis: Pancreas

• Action: Small intestine

• Role: Breaks down lipids

h. Amylase → see (a)

i. Trypsin

• Synthesis: Pancreas (as trypsinogen)

• Action: Small intestine

• Role: Breaks down proteins

j. HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate)

• Synthesis: Pancreas

• Action: Small intestine

• Role: Neutralizes stomach acid

k. Lactase

• Synthesis: Small intestine cells

• Action: Small intestine

• Role: Breaks lactose into glucose + galactose

l. Lactose

• It’s a disaccharide sugar broken down by lactase

7. Liver

a. Removes toxins, old red blood cells, and excess nutrients from blood

b. Produces bile (digestion) and urea (excretion)

c. Produces urea from ammonia (nitrogen waste)

d. Stores glycogen (polymer of glucose) for energy balance

e. Detoxifies alcohol, drugs, and poisons

8. How stomach/small intestine deal with stomach acid

• Stomach: Has mucus lining to protect from acid

• Small intestine: Pancreas releases bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) to neutralize acid

9. Kidney/Nephron

a. Filtration: Filters water, urea, glucose, salts out of blood at glomerulus

b. Reabsorption: Takes back water, glucose, amino acids into blood

c. Secretion: Adds toxins, drugs, H⁺, urea into urine

10. Significance of C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁

• It’s sucrose (a sugar).

• Large sugar molecules like this are filtered at the nephron and usually reabsorbed, unless levels are too high (like in diabetes).

11. Significance of filtrate

• Filtrate is the fluid filtered from the blood (no cells/proteins) at the nephron — it’s what becomes urine after processing.

12. 5 tissues related to surface area & nephron tubes

• Examples: Alveoli, villi, capillaries, nephron tubules, microvilli

• High surface area improves absorption, exchange, and filtration in nephron and other organs.

13. Nephron diagram: hypertonic/hypotonic, passive/active transport

• Loop of Henle:
  

  • Descending: Water exits (passive), environment is hypertonic

  • Ascending: Na⁺/Cl⁻ pumped out (active), water stays

• Collecting duct: Controlled water reabsorption (ADH regulates)

14. Glomerulonephritis

• Inflammation of glomeruli

• Can damage filtration, leading to blood/protein in urine

15. Endothelialization

• Growth of endothelial cells (lining blood vessels)

• Important in healing, reducing blood clots, and forming new vessels

16. Heart diagram: vessels and oxygenation

• Right side = deoxygenated → lungs via pulmonary artery

• Left side = oxygenated → body via aorta

• Veins return blood (e.g., vena cava, pulmonary vein)

17. Blood vessel details

• Arteries: Thick, carry blood away, high pressure

• Veins: Thinner, carry blood to heart, have valves

• Capillaries: Thin walls, allow exchange

18. Two main components of blood

a. Plasma (can’t use for this one)

b. Formed elements:

• Red blood cells (carry O₂),

• White blood cells (immunity),

• Platelets (clotting)

19. How water maintains homeostasis in cells and blood

• Regulates osmotic pressure

• Maintains blood volume and pressure

• Helps dissolve and transport nutrients/waste

20. Role of glucose and O₂ in all systems

• Glucose + O₂ = Cellular respiration → ATP

• Circulatory system transports them to cells

• Digestive absorbs glucose; respiratory brings in O₂

21. Hemoglobin and how proteins are made

• Hemoglobin = protein with 4 polypeptides that carry oxygen

• Made via transcription (DNA → mRNA) and translation (mRNA → protein)

• Hemoglobin genes are on 2 chromosomes, but make 4 chains (2 alpha, 2 beta)

22. Mammal-specific characteristics

• Hair/fur, mammary glands, live birth (mostly), 4-chambered heart, endothermic

23. Evolution of closed circulation, 4-chambered heart, lungs

• Closed system allows high pressure/efficient delivery

• 4 chambers separate oxygenated/deoxygenated blood

• Lungs allow air breathing on land

24. Significance of alveoli & cell type

• Alveoli = site of gas exchange

• Simple squamous epithelium (not stratified) allows fast diffusion

25. Organ, tissue, cell, protein in respiratory system

• Organ: Lungs

• Tissue: Epithelial (lining alveoli)

• Cell: Alveolar cell

• Protein: Hemoglobin (carries O₂)

26. Respiratory system: what process in what organelle & role of O₂

• Purpose: Bring in O₂ for cellular respiration

• Takes place in mitochondria

• O₂ is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain → makes ATP

27. Genetics of hemophilia or blood type

• Hemophilia: X-linked recessive (mostly affects males)

• Blood type: Determined by ABO gene
  

  • A and B = codominant

  • O = recessive

  • Rh factor is separate (+ or -)