Portugal empire

Time Frame: Focus on the 1400s and 1500s, during the early modern period in Western Europe and the Near East.
Purpose of Discussion:
- These lectures provide brief overviews meant to introduce the basic geography, political, social, and cultural systems of the Iberian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal (collectively known as the Iberian Peninsula).
- Acknowledge complexity and richness of their histories; these notes are not exhaustive.

Introduction:
- Spain and Portugal, referred to as the Iberian Kingdoms, are relatively new kingdoms at the start of the early modern period.
- They emerged from the historical process known as Reconquista.
Reconquista:
- Defined as the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rulers, initiated after the fall of the Visigothic Kingdom to invaders from the Umayyad Empire in 711.
- Spanish territories fell under Muslim control until 1492, which marked the end of the last Muslim kingdom.
- The Reconquista sought to end approximately 800 years of Muslim rule over various portions of the Iberian Peninsula.

Tri-faith Society: During the Muslim sovereignty, the Iberian Peninsula was home to three significant populations:
- Jews
- Christians
- Muslims
- Each group received legal recognition under Islamic rule.
Transition to Christian Rule:
- With the establishment of Christian dominion, Muslims and Jews faced severe persecution, confronted with mandates to convert, leave, or face execution.
- Conversos and Moranos:
- Those who converted under duress were referred to as Conversos.
- Sometimes referred to as Moranos, with the dual implications of convert and secret practitioner of Judaism (in Jewish lectures).

Post-Reconquista Discrimination:
- Conversos faced intense societal and institutional persecution, especially due to poor record-keeping methods during the time.
- Accusations:
- Individuals could be accused of still practicing their original faith, which could lead to investigations by the Spanish Inquisition.
- The Inquisition sought to identify Judaism, Islam, and other improper beliefs, using accusations to eliminate rivals in status and wealth.
Implications of Identity:
- Post-Reconquista, identities were scrutinized to the point where mere conversion was insufficient for acceptance within Christian society.
- Accusations of being converted practitioners of the former faith still led to stigmatization.

Alliance with the State:
- The Catholic Church held crucial roles in governance, enforcing doctrinal uniformity via persecution and violence.
- Notable that this alliance between the Iberian kingdoms and the Catholic Church shaped many political decisions on a European level.

Emergence of Racial Concepts:
- The discrimination faced due to previous faiths, even after conversion, is seen as a foundational moment in developing concepts regarding race within the Western tradition.
- Historical perspectives indicate this led to a constructs of prejudice and discrimination that would persist.

Expulsions and Exploration:
- In 1492, Jews and Muslims were expelled from Spain; in 1496, from Portugal.
- 1492 also marks Columbus's arrival in the Americas, signalling the start of an expansive era of European colonization.
Global Interactions:
- The transatlantic slave trade initiated by Portugal, which will drastically impact both African and indigenous populations.
- Deloitte estimates showed that indigenous populations in North America diminished from 20 million to 2 million due to European diseases and conflicts.

Military Campaigns and Expansion (1492-1534):
- Series of campaigns lead to vast conquests, primarily in the Caribbean, where diseases decimated indigenous populations.
- Notable Conquests:
- Hernan Cortes (1519-1521): Conquered the Aztec Empire.
- Francisco Pizarro: Conquered the Incan Empire by 1533.
- These conquests significantly increased Spain's wealth through access to gold and silver mines.
Habsburg Rule:
- The Habsburg family ruled Spain during this early modern period.
- Ruler included Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor); he held significant power, controlling both Spain and its colonies.

Mineral Wealth:
- Silver was especially lucrative, profoundly influencing European currency and trade.
- Trade monopolies and control of the trade routes shifted economic power dynamics within Europe.

Loss of Territorial Influence:
- In the 17th century, despite vast territorial holdings, economic conditions worsened.
- Mineral resources became exhausted; Spain lost its dominant trade positions.
- Competition from emerging empires like England, France, and the Netherlands complicated its standing.
Military Exhaustion:
- Frequent wars, often with religious undertones, drained resources.
- By 1700: Spain was no longer central to European affairs, having lost much of its previous power and influence.

Portugal’s Exploratory Focus:
- Established trade routes and outposts in Africa and subsequently aimed for India and Asian territories.
- Built fortified outposts such as Goa and Macau.
Papal Intervention:
- In 1493, Pope Alexander VI proposed a Line of Demarcation to prevent conflict between Spain and Portugal regarding colonial territories.
- The Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 adjusted this line based on Portugal’s interests.
Economic Gains and Slave Trade:
- Portugal’s empire thrived on slave trade profits and access to valuable resources, such as silver mines in Brazil.
Conquests and Decline:
- From 1580 to 1640, Portugal was under Spanish control, seeing temporary unity with Spain.
- Post-1640, Portugal regained independence but would eventually face similar decline as Spain by the 1700s.

The interrelationship between the Iberian kingdoms and their imperial activities laid foundational structures for future discussions on race, identity, and colonialism that would reverberate through European history.