UPSC CSE Prelims 2025 History Notes

Indian Architecture

• Indian architecture reflects the country's rich cultural and historical heritage.

• It has evolved over thousands of years, showcasing diverse traditions, religious beliefs, and social values.

• Influenced by religion, mythology, and the natural environment.

• Each period brought unique styles, materials, and construction techniques.

Key Features of Indian Architecture

• Symbolism: Structures like temples and stupas represent cosmic or spiritual ideas.

• Ornamentation: Intricate carvings, sculptures, and decorative patterns.

• Diversity: Distinct regional styles influenced by local traditions, materials, and external cultures.

Classification of Indian Architecture

Ancient Indian Architecture

• Harappan Architecture (2600–1900 BCE)

  • Urban planning, grid layouts, drainage systems.

  • Structures like the Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro.

• Mauryan Architecture (3rd century BCE)

  • Stone structures like Ashokan Pillars and stupas.

  • Example: stupa at Sanchi.

• Post-Mauryan Architecture (2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE)

  • Rock-cut caves, chaityas, and viharas.

  • Examples: Ajanta and Ellora caves.

• Gupta Period Architecture (4th to 6th century CE)

  • "Golden Age," advancements in Hindu temple architecture and brick stupas.

  • Example: Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh.

• Post-Gupta Architecture (7th to 10th century CE)

  • Emergence of distinct Nagara, Dravidian, and Vesara styles of temple architecture.

• Temple Architecture

  • Nagara (North Indian style), Dravidian (South Indian style), and Vesara (mixed style).

  • Examples: Temples in Khajuraho, Mahabalipuram, and Pattadakal.

Medieval Indian Architecture

• Delhi Sultanate Architecture (12th to 15th century)

  • Use of domes, arches, and minarets.

  • Examples: Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza, and Tughlaqabad Fort.

• Mughal Architecture (16th to 18th century)

  • Symmetry, gardens, and grand structures combining Persian and Indian elements.

  • Examples: Humayun’s Tomb, Taj Mahal, and Red Fort.

Modern Indian Architecture

• Portuguese Architecture (15th to 18th century)

  • Baroque and Gothic styles in regions like Goa.

  • Examples: Basilica of Bom Jesus and Se Cathedral.

• French Architecture (17th to 18th century)

  • Classical European layouts, villas, and churches in Puducherry.

• British Architecture (18th to 20th century)

  • Colonial styles such as Gothic Revival and Neo-Roman.

  • Examples: Victoria Memorial, Gateway of India, and Rashtrapati Bhavan.

Harappan Architecture

• Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE): Advanced town planning and architectural techniques.

• Well-planned cities with remarkable precision.

• Use of baked bricks, standardized weights, and efficient drainage systems.

Important Harappan Sites and Their Findings

• Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan)

  • Key Findings: Great Bath, Granary, seals, weights, ornaments.

  • Important Facts: Known as the "Mound of the Dead"; advanced drainage system and urban layout.

• Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan)

  • Key Findings: Granaries, stone tools, seals, cemetery.

  • Important Facts: First site discovered; provided the name for the civilization.

• Dholavira (Gujarat, India)

  • Key Findings: Water reservoirs, step wells, inscriptions.

  • Important Facts: Notable for water management and unique script on stone slabs.

• Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India)

  • Key Findings: Fire altars, ploughed fields, pottery.

  • Important Facts: Evidence of early agriculture and ritualistic practices.

• Lothal (Gujarat, India)

  • Key Findings: Dockyard, beads, seals, tools.

  • Important Facts: Major port city; evidence of maritime trade and bead-making industry.

• Chanhudaro (Sindh, Pakistan)

  • Key Findings: Bead-making factory, seals, copper tools.

  • Important Facts: Specialized in craft production and small-scale industries.

• Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India)

  • Key Findings: Pottery, jewelry, burial sites.

  • Important Facts: Largest known Harappan site; evidence of social stratification.

• Banawali (Haryana, India)

  • Key Findings: Terracotta figurines, pottery, toy carts.

  • Important Facts: Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan phases of settlement.

• Surkotada (Gujarat, India)

  • Key Findings: Horse remains, fortifications.

  • Important Facts: Evidence of horse domestication; only site with confirmed horse fossils.

• Sutkagendor (Balochistan, Pakistan)

  • Key Findings: Trade port, defensive walls.

  • Important Facts: Located on the trade route connecting Mesopotamia and Harappa.

• Amri (Sindh, Pakistan)

  • Key Findings: Early Harappan pottery, microlithic tools.

  • Important Facts: Provides evidence of pre-Harappan cultural phases.

• Rangpur (Gujarat, India)

  • Key Findings: Rice husks, microliths.

  • Important Facts: Evidence of rice cultivation; satellite settlement of Lothal.

• Kot Diji (Sindh, Pakistan)

  • Key Findings: Early fortifications, pottery.

  • Important Facts: Pre-Harappan fortified town with cultural continuity into Harappan phase.

• Ropar (Punjab, India)

  • Key Findings: Burial sites, copper implements.

  • Important Facts: Evidence of continuous habitation from Harappan to later cultures.

• Balakot (Sindh, Pakistan)

  • Key Findings: Shell-working industry, pottery.

  • Important Facts: Specialized in shell ornament production; coastal settlement.

• Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)

  • Key Findings: Painted pottery, terracotta items.

  • Important Facts: Easternmost Harappan site; evidence of textile production.

• Daimabad (Maharashtra)

  • Key Findings: Metal-cast sculptures.

Sculptures in the Harappan Civilization

• Art and sculpture provide valuable insights into the culture, daily life, and spiritual practices of the people.

• Key forms: seals, terracotta figurines, pottery, and ornaments.

Seals and Seal Impressions

• Material: Steatite (soft stone), often carved with intricate designs.

• Purpose: Administrative, commercial, and religious.

• Depictions: Animals (e.g., unicorn, bulls, elephants) and humanoid figures.

• Pashupati Seal:

  • Human figure seated cross-legged.

  • Elephant and tiger on the right, rhinoceros and a buffalo on the left.

  • Two antelopes shown below the seat.

• Notable Example: The “priest-king” figure.

• Inscription: Often bear inscriptions in the still-undeciphered Harappan script.

Terracotta Figurines

• Types: Depict humans, animals, and deities.

• Famous Figurines:

  • "Dancing Girl" from Mohenjo-Daro: Bronze figure symbolizing grace and movement.

  • Mother Goddess figurines: Related to fertility rituals.

• Symbolism: Animal figurines reflect cultural and religious significance.

Pottery

• Material: Fired clay, both hand-made and wheel-made pieces.

• Styles:

  • Black-and-red ware, with geometric patterns.

  • Large storage jars indicating agricultural practices and trade.

• Utility: Practical (for storage) and ceremonial (for rituals).

Ornaments

• Materials: Gold, silver, copper, ivory, and semi-precious stones.

• Types: Beads, necklaces, bangles, earrings.

• Craftsmanship: Finely made beads.

• Social Significance: Symbols of wealth and social status.

Cities and Town Planning in the Harappan Civilization

• Advanced town planning and urban infrastructure.

Grid Pattern of Streets

• Organization: Laid out in a grid pattern.

• Main Roads: Wide streets intersected by narrow lanes.

• Efficiency: Highly organized society.

The Citadel and Lower Town

• Citadel:

  • Elevated area surrounded by a brick wall.

  • Housed administrative and religious structures.

  • Example: Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro.

• Lower Town:

  • Residential and commercial buildings.

  • Homes organized around courtyards.

Drainage and Sanitation Systems

• Advanced Drainage: Intricate system with covered drains running along streets.

• Waste Management: Houses connected to drains.

• Cleanliness: Focus on hygiene and public health.

Building Materials

• Bricks: Standardized, kiln-fired bricks.

• Uniformity: Brick size (approximately 7.5 cm \times 15 cm \times 30 cm).

• Materials for Strength: Mud brick and stone for foundations.

Water Management

• Wells: Numerous wells providing a reliable water source.

• Granaries: Large, well-planned granaries for storing surplus grain.

• Rainwater Harvesting: Large reservoirs and water channels in cities like Dholavira.

Urban Centers and Trade

• Trade Networks: Central hubs in a vast trade network.

• Ports: Coastal cities like Lothal served as ports.

Mauryan Art and Architecture

• Distinguished by Court Art and Popular Art.

Court Art

• Commissioned by the royal family.

• Displays imperial power, religious beliefs, and governance policies.

Ashokan Pillars

• Monumental stone structures erected by Emperor Ashoka.

• Used to spread Ashoka's edicts and moral laws.

• Columns that carry Ashokan inscriptions:

  • Delhi Mirat, Allahabad, Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva (with lion capital), Delhi-Topara, Sankisya, Sanchi and Sarnath.

• Non-edict bearing columns:

  • Rampurva (with a bull capital), Basarah Bakhira (with a single lion capital), and Kosam.

• Columns bearing dedicatory inscriptions:

  • Rummendei and Nigali Sagar.

• Standalone monumental columns.

Parts of Ashokan Pillars

• Base/Platform: Often square or rectangular.

• Shaft: Vertical part of the pillar, cylindrical, made from polished sandstone, 30–40 feet tall.

• Abacus: The base on which the animal figure was placed.

• Capital: The top of the pillar, featuring an animal figure.

• Inscriptions: Ashoka’s edicts in Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts.

Technicalities of Ashokan Pillars

• Material: Primarily sandstone (Chunar sandstone).

• Construction: Quarried, shaped, and polished.

• Height and Size: Typically stood 30–40 feet tall.

• Polishing: Highly polished shafts.

• Capital: Animal figures symbolizing strength, power, and imperial authority.

Stupas of the Mauryan Period

• Key religious monuments housing relics of the Buddha.

• Pilgrimage sites.

• Associated with Ashoka.

• Typically located in urban areas, close to trade routes.

Caves of the Mauryan Period

• Used primarily for monastic purposes.

• Carved into cliffs and rocks for meditation and religious gatherings.

• Four caves on the Barabar hill:

  • Lomas Rishi Cave, Sudama Cave, Karan Chaupar Cave, and Visvakanna Cave.

• Inscriptions provide information about the dedication of the caves to the Ajivika religious sect.

Common Architectural Features

• Monastic Cells: Small rooms for meditation and living.

• Arched Entrances: Barrel-vaulted or simple arched entrances.

• Chaitya Halls: Large prayer halls with a stupa-like structure at the end.

• Columns and Carvings: Decorative and structural columns with carvings.

Sculptures

• Used for the decoration of stupas, and as the form of religious expression.

• Yaksha and Yakshi Figures: Carved in robust, full-bodied forms, representing fertility and wealth.

Post-Mauryan Art and Architecture

• Continuation and expansion of earlier forms.

• Regional variations and new artistic influences.

Shunga Period Art and Architecture (185 BCE – 73 BCE)

• Known for stupas and sculptures.

Architectural Contributions

• Stupas: Expanding and enhancing stupas at Sanchi.

• Toranas (Gateways): Elaborate stone gateways at the entrance of stupas.

Sculpture

• Buddha Images: Buddha sculptures in a more humanized form.

• Reliefs: Depicting stories from the Jataka tales on stone railings and slabs.

• Artistic Style: More realistic, showing naturalistic depictions of human figures.

Satavahana Period Art and Architecture (1st Century BCE – 2nd Century CE)

• Patrons of Buddhist art.

Architectural Contributions

• Caves: Construction of rock-cut caves for Buddhist monks.

  • Examples: Karle Caves and Bhaja Caves.

Sculpture

• Stupas adorned with sculptures of Buddha and other Buddhist symbols.

• The images of the Buddha were sometimes depicted in anthropomorphic form (human form).

Kushana Period Art and Architecture (1st Century CE – 3rd Century CE)

• Known for contribution to Buddhist art.

Architectural Contributions

• Construction of monumental stupas and Buddhist shrines.

  • Example: Kanishka Stupa in Peshawar.

• Development of Buddhist monasteries.

Sculpture

• Buddha Sculptures: First to depict the Buddha in human form.

• Gandhara School: Influenced by Greek and Roman styles.

• Mathura School: Influenced by local traditions, developed a more Indian style of Buddhist sculpture.

Rock-Cut Caves of Udaygiri and Khandagiri

• Located near Bhubaneswar in Odisha.

• Examples of rock-cut architecture from the Post-Mauryan period.

• Created by the Kalinga rulers in the 2nd century BCE.

Khandagiri Caves

• Number of Caves: Complex of 15 caves.

• Key Features:

  • Single-Story and Multi-Story Caves

  • Animals, trees, and symbolic representations of Jainism Carvings

Udaygiri Caves

• Number of Caves: 18 caves.

• Key Features:

  • Cave No.14 – Hathi Gumpha (Elephant Cave)

  • Cave No.1 (The Rani Gumpha)

Architectural Style and Influence

• Material Used: Carved directly from the soft sandstone.

• Iconography and Art: Sculptural depictions of Jain Tirthankaras.

• Architectural Layout: Pillared halls, verandas, and chambers for prayers, meditation, and rituals.

• Influences: Mauryan rock-cut architecture, Buddhist and Hindu styles.

Introduction to Gupta Architecture

• Gupta period (4th–6th century CE), known as the "Golden Age" of Indian art.

• Transition from rock-cut to structural architecture.

• Simplicity, elegance, and symbolic designs.

Cave Architecture of the Gupta Dynasty

• Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra): Frescoes depicting Jataka tales and the life of Buddha.

• Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): Depicting Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain influences.

• Bagh Caves (Madhya Pradesh): Buddhist cave, famous for their Gupta-style frescoes.

• Udayagiri Caves (Madhya Pradesh) Early 5th century CE: caves near Vidisha,
  Mostly Hindu caves, with some Jain elements. features Vishnu in Varaha avatar

• Khandagiri & Udayagiri Caves (Odisha) : Gupta artistic influences show some, Jaina, facades ornateKnown. Rani Gumpha (Cave 1) – Largest cave, most famous Cave.. Ganesh Gumpha (Largest) with Jain Tirthankaras.

• Nasik Caves (Pandavleni ) (Maharashtra) Gupta period additions later phases Mahayana tradition; some influence; Buddha sculptures.

• Eran Caves (Madhya Pradesh) Lesser-known cave has Gupta inscriptions; smallshrines and sculptures of deities, with regional elements

• Elephanta Caves (Maharashtra): Hindu caves, sculptures of Shiva, particularly the Trimurti.

• Mandapeshwar Caves (Maharashtra): Hindu caves, simple reliefs basalt rock.

Styles of Temple Architecture

Nagara Style of Temple Architecture

• Predominant in North India, emerged around the 5th century CE.

• Distinct shikhara (tower) and compact ground plan.

• Unlike the Dravidian style, It does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.

Key Features of Nagara Style

• Shikhara (Tower):

  • Rises vertically above the sanctum (garbhagriha).

  • Usually curvilinear in form.

  • Types: rekha-prasad, phamsana, and valabhi.

• Ground Plan:

  • Square sanctum (garbhagriha) with a mandapa (pillared hall).

  • Often a pradakshina patha (circumambulatory path).

• Ornamentation: Elaborate carvings.

• Regions of Prominence: Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Khajuraho.

Sub-Schools of Nagara Style

• Odisha School:

  • Distinct rekha-deula (shikhara) and pidha-deula (mandapa), structures khakra; Richly carved exteriors; plain interiors.

    • Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar; Jagannath Temple, Puri; Konark Sun Temple, Konark; Sirpur temple complex in Chhattisgarh.

• Khajuraho School:

  • Erotic sculptures and symbolic carvings Mithun sculptures, considered auspicious; multiple shikharas.

  • Kandariya Mahadev Temple; Lakshmana Temple; Vishvanatha Temple.

• Solanki (Maru-Gurja ra) School

  • Intricately carved sandstone elaborate step-wells (vavs) and toranas; open sabha mandapas.

    • Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat; Ranakpur Jain Temple, Rajasthan; Somnath Temple, Gujarat.

Prominent Nagara Temples

*Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh & 6th-century CE

• Earliest surviving Nagara temple with a shikhara, panchayatana style, rekhaprasada shikhara, and three main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls

  • Lingaraja Temple Bhubaneswar, Odisha
    11th century CE &Quintessential Odisha school temple. Lingaraja Temple Bhubaneswar, Odisha
    *Jagannath Temple Puri, Odisha
    12th century CE Rekha-deula structure with pidha-deula mandapa.Dedicated to Lord Jagannath.
    *Chausath Yogini Temple Morena, Madhya Pradesh
    9th century CE circular temple dedicated to 64 YoginisShows transition from early Nagara style.
    *Kandariya Mahadev Temple Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh
    features intricate sculptures and towering shikharas
    *Konark Sun Temple Konark, Odisha & 1240 AD
    Chariot-shaped temple with twelve intricately carved wheel
    *Modhera Sun Temple Modhera, Gujarat &11th century CE
    Features a unique water tank surrounded by miniature shrinesSolar deities carvings
    *Lakshmana Temple Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh&10th century CE Dance class sculpture, Dedicated to Vishnu
    *Vishvanatha Temple Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh&11th century CE Dedicated to Shiva.celestial beings, dancers carvings
    *Parashurames hvara Temple Bhubaneswar, Odisha
    7th century CEearly Nagara temple with a rekha-deula shikhara.Dedicated to Lord Shiva.
    Rajarani Temple &Bhubaneswar, Odisha&11th century CE Elabroate carvings & Pancha-ratha designUnique
    *Rajiv Lochan Temple &Rajim, Chhattisgarh&7th or 8th CE & Dedicated to Lord Vishnu &Early Pancharatha Style
    *Mukteshwar Temple &Bhubaneswar, Odisha&10th century CE- The "Gem of Odisha architecture."
    *Sun Temple at Martand - Anantnag, Jammu & Kashmir&8th century CE Blends Gandhara and Nagara styles
    Brahmeshwar Temple & -Bhubaneswar, Odisha&11th century CE -Friezes: court scenes, musicians dance, and dancers
    *Ambika Mata Temple, Jagat, Rajasthan & 10th century CE Known as "Khajuraho of Rajasthan."
    Compact Nagara layout; Features intricate carvings. & Sun Temple at Katarmal ,Almora, Uttarakhand
    Rare example of Nagaratemple architecture in the Himalayan region.
    Baijnath Temple &Kangra, Himachal Pradesh & 9th century CE dedicated to Shiva Elegant Nagara shikhara and intricate carvings.
    Mahakaleshwar Temple & Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh &Ancient; Renovated A significant Jyotirlinga temple.
    Water tank attached and a decoratedDoorway with row of elephants: Pandrethan Temple -Srinagar -Karkota period
    *Kashmir During karkota time

Dravidian Style of Temple Architecture

• Prevalent in South India.

• Developed distinctly during the Pallava period.

• Pyramidal towers (vimanas), ornate gopurams (gateway towers).

Stages of Development of Dravidian Architecture

• Mahendravarman Period (600–630 CE): Early experiments in rock-cut temples.

  • Notable Examples:

    • Mandagapattu Cave Temple

• Narasimhavarman Period (630–668 CE): Transition from rock-cut to monolithic architecture.

  • Notable Examples:

    • Mamallapuram Rathas (Pancha Rathas); Mahishasuramardini Cave Temple, Mamallapuram.

  • Shore temple Mahabalipuram

• Rajasimha Period (700–728 CE): Development of structural temples.
  *Notable Examples:
  Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchipuram
  Shore temple at Mahabalipuram
  Shore temple Mahabalipuram shore temple

• Kailasanatha Temple Kanchipuram,

• Nandivarman Period (731–796 CE): Structural temple architecture refinement.
  *Notable Examples:

  • Mukteshwar Temple, Kanchipuram & with gopuras as prominent elements Mukteshwar Temple
    Mukteshwar Temple&Mukteshwar Temple.

Features of Dravidian Style Architecture

• Vimana (Tower)
  Pyramid-shaped tower made of progressing tales from sanctum

• Gopuram (Gateway Tower)-Ornately decorated gateway

• Mandapa (Pillared Hall -Open enclosure for devotional workship
  • Prakara (Enclosure)-Walls that Surrounds the Temple complex

Prominent Temples of Dravidian Style

• Kailasanatha Temple Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu with ornate vimanas 7th century CE,

• Vaikuntha Perumal Temple Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, 8th century CE Pallavatamle

• Brihadeshwara Temple /Shiva temple / Rajarajeswara temple Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 1009 ADUNESCO World Heritage Site Raja Raja Chola,built

• Gangaikonda CholapuramGangaikonda Cholapuram, Tamil Nadu11th century CE builthChola

• Airavatesvara Temple Darasuram, Tamil Nadu12th century Builtthraja

• Shore Temple Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu&8th century CEMaeshwara &UNESCO World Heritage Site:
  Dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu

• Meenakshi Temple Madurai, Tamil Nadu17th century CE & Gopuram &vibrant sculptures

• Ranganathasw amy Temple Srirangam, Tamil Nadu9th century CEMassive gopurams added

Key Architectural Elements of Mahabalipuram

*Rathas (Monolithic Temples)
&Pancha Rathas were also called: *Dharmaraja Ratha Tallest among the rathas.
*Bhima Ratha Rectangular plan with a barrel-vaulted roof.
*Arjuna Ratha Smaller square ratha carved
*Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha are animal structures (elephants/lions).Smaller
*Draupadi Ratha Hut-design thacked roof shape and called.
*Rock-Cut Caves: Mahabalipuram various caves
*Varaha Cave: Depicts Vishnu’s Varaha is the Boar saving
*Mahishasuramardini Cave: Showcases Durga slaying & Mahishasur
*Shore Temple: built during the reign (Rajasimha Narasimhavarman II’s period).
A structural temple, it marks the transition from monolithic architectural style.
A massive sculpture- Gange of Descent 27 m x 9m & considered: Descent Arjuna's Penance

Few other Temple Styles

• Vesara Style chalukyas fusion , stellate design &Hoyaleshwar temple

• Nayaka is called Madurai massive gopurams and tanks :Meenakshi tmeple

• Pala black basalt unique deul:Vanga inspired : Somapura Mahavihara, Bangladesh

• Hoysala Stellate Shape &soapstone hoyaleshwara temple

• Vijayanagara tal gaya rayagopuram & Kalyana mandapa hampi, Viryapaksha temple
  *The early western Chalukyas - Deccan most elaboratelavish :Durga temple at Aihole

NCERT value addition

& sandstone -Khajurao is built
torana sabha mandapa- ornament
Ahom style Ahom Guwahati-style Ahom Kuta square shape-Caturasra
Sala: rectangular shape& -Ayatasra & elephant ellipsoida -Vritha
A psidal shape &Nasi is a horse shape faade at elaptal

Introduction to Medieval Indian Architecture

Marked by distinct local traditions and significant influences from Islamic rulers

Medieval Indian architecture can be broadly divided into three categories:
Delhi Sultanate Architecture Mughal Architecture, Regional Schools:

Features of Medieval Indian Architecture Introduction of Islamic Elements Arches, Domes, Minarets:Materials and Techniques, Red sandstone, marble

Materials and Techniques :Red sandstone, marble
Ornamentation, Islamic structures, geometrical
Fusion of Styles and Indo-Islamic architecture
Focus on Utility and Aesthetics, Mosques, tombs, and forts .Palaces and stepwells
Regional Variations Malwa, Jaunpur, Bengal, Bijapur for design details. Bijapur used domes

Delhi Sultanate Architecture

• Slave Dynasty Qutub Minar (Delhi) ,

• Khilji Dynasty Alai Darwaza (Delhi) , Hauz Khas Complex

• Tughlaq Dynasty Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s Tomb, Firoz Shah Kotla

• Sayyid Dynasty Tomb of Muhammad Shah (Delhi)

• Lodi Dynasty Tomb of Sikandar Lodi (Delhi),Shish Gumbad Bara Gumbad

  Mughal Architecture

  *Babur - Bagh (Agra), Kabuli Bagh Mosque Modest. Bagh (Agra)

  • Limited architectural contributions.Focus on garden planning.
    *HumayunHumayun’s Tomb (Delhi) Prototype for Mughal tombs

  • Transitional phase with Persian influences.Introduction of double domes and pishtaqs *AkbarFatehpur Sikri - Agra Fort Trabeate style

    • with Indian styles Akbar- fusion, Bulbuous domes and Inscriptions
      *JahangirShalimar Bagh (Kashmir), Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah (Agra) Pietra dura (inlay work) Introduced.
      *Refinement of Akbar's fusion style.Emphasis on decorative elements and gardens.
      *Shah JahanTaj Mahal (Agra), Moti Masjid (Agra)
      Perfect of White marble-Refined use of domes, minarets, and iwans
      Aurangzeb: focus on mosques , -Bibi Ka Maqbara
      *The decline of grandeur and emphasis on functionality.

  Philosophy in India

Orthodox Schools (Astika)

*Samkhya- Dualism dividing reality into two Purusha & Prakriti,
*Yoga- a practical method for ,Ashtanga Yoga) for liberation-Patanjali
*Nyaya - Focuses on epistemology Gautam
*Vaisheshika-Atomistic Natural universe ,universe Sage Kanada
*Mimamsa- Emphasis on rituals,the karma-kanda actions with kosmos Rta
*Vedanta -Brahman & Adi Shankarcharya / Ramanuja/ Madhvacharya sub School

Heterodox Schools (Nastika)

*Charvaka - Materialistic-sensory based

# Indian Music

• swara foundation note, sa re ga ma pa dha ni are shudha and sharpended .Octaves mandya mid and tara 3.Raag , melodic improvisation frame.
  *tal- rythem cycle,Matra , thar and sam beat
  What bilawal, kafi Thatt is called and is called .
  *Classical music folk semi fusion - music classifications
  Oldest vedic spiritual Thrumad .Classical and dominant kayal

  Indian Painting

*Indian PaintingVisual evolution overtime &Cultural details .Painting is and is a medium for self expression. Principles include sadrisyam
rupabheda

• classification includes Miniatures, wall hangings, folk paintings, and artModern
  *Paleolithic: earliest use of color and animal representation, Bhimbetkar
  *Gupta to Ajanta ,Elorabadami: Sittanavasani & bagg.Murals
  Religious : Jain mythology. Early indian frescoes, high rich high end rich
  Religious and depiction &Iconography detail
  Folk : Madhubani
  Detailing & Bold line and the vibrant color. Folk
  Kalamkari painting based on nature is called.
  The styles include : Rajput, Pahari, Bengal,and Deccan. Mughal and colonial
  *Miniature painting is called Mughal style.Royal portrait

Tibal nature by Nature by Warli
Modern art combines Western blending.
Modern with Indian blend including Raja ravi verma