Comprehensive Study Guide to Nationalism in India and the Struggle for Independence

Modern Nationalism and the Growth of Anti-Colonial Consciousness

• Modern nationalism in Europe is characterized by the formation of nation-states and a transformation in the collective understanding of identity, belonging, and definition of self.

• This shift in Europe was catalyzed by new symbols, icons, songs, and ideas that forged fresh communal links and redefined boundaries.

• In India and other colonies, the emergence of modern nationalism is fundamentally linked to the anti-colonial movement.

• Individuals and groups discovered their unity through the collective process of struggling against colonial rule.

• The shared experience of oppression under colonialism served as a bond that tied diverse groups together, although each class and social group felt these effects differently.

• The notions of freedom and the experiences of colonialism were varied; for instance, what meant freedom to one group did not necessarily mean the same to another.

• The Congress, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, attempted to forge these disparate groups into a single, unified movement, though this unity often involved internal conflict.

• The phase of the national movement from the $1920s$ onward is dominated by the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements.

The Impact of the First World War and Post-War Economic Conditions

• The First World War created a significantly altered political and economic landscape in India.

• There was a massive increase in defense expenditure, which the British colonial government financed through war loans and heightened taxation: customs duties were raised and income tax was introduced for the first time.

• Prices of essential goods increased rapidly, doubling between $1913$ and $1918$, causing extreme hardship for the common population.

• Villages were pressured to supply soldiers through a process of forced recruitment, leading to widespread anger in rural areas.

• Between $1918-19$ and $1920-21$, crops failed in many parts of the country, leading to acute food shortages.

• An influenza epidemic accompanied these famines; according to the census of $1921$, approximately $12$ to $13$ million people perished due to these combined factors.

• The hope that hardships would cease after the war ended was not realized, creating an environment ripe for a new mode of struggle and new leadership.

The Idea of Satyagraha and Early Gandhian Movements

• Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January $1915$ after successfully leading a struggle against the racist regime in South Africa using a novel method of mass agitation called satyagraha.

• Satyagraha is based on the power of truth and the necessity of searching for truth.

• The philosophy posits that if a cause is true and the struggle is against injustice, physical force is unnecessary to defeat the oppressor.

• A satyagrahi can win battles through non-violence by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor, rather than using violence to force the acceptance of truth.

• Mahatma Gandhi believed that the dharma of non-violence could serve as the unifying force for all Indians.

• Early successful satyagraha movements in India included:

  • $1917$: Champaran, Bihar, to inspire peasants to struggle against the oppressive indigo plantation system.

  • $1918$: Kheda district, Gujarat, to support peasants affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic who were demanding a relaxation in revenue collection.

  • $1918$: Ahmedabad, Gujarat, to organize cotton mill workers.

The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

• The Rowlatt Act was hurriedly passed in $1919$ by the Imperial Legislative Council despite united opposition from Indian members.

• The Act granted the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed for the detention of political prisoners without trial for a period of $2$ years.

• Mahatma Gandhi organized a nationwide satyagraha against this 'unjust' law, beginning with a hartal on $6$ April $1919$.

• The movement included rallies in cities, strikes in railway workshops, and the closure of shops.

• British officials, fearing a disruption of communication lines (railways and telegraph), suppressed the movement by picking up leaders from Amritsar and barring Gandhi from entering Delhi.

• On $10$ April $1919$, police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession, leading to attacks on banks, post offices, and railway stations. Martial law was subsequently imposed, and General Dyer took command.

• The Jallianwala Bagh incident occurred on $13$ April $1919$. A large crowd had gathered in the enclosed ground; some to protest government measures and others for the annual Baisakhi fair. Many villagers were unaware of the martial law.

• General Dyer blocked the exit points and ordered his troops to open fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. His stated objective was to 'produce a moral effect' and instill a sense of terror and awe in the minds of satyagrahis.

• The news led to strikes, clashes, and attacks on government buildings across north Indian towns. The government responded with brutal repression, including public floggings, forcing people to crawl, and bombing villages near Gujranwala in Punjab.

• Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement as it turned violent.

The Khilafat Movement and the Strategy of Non-Cooperation

• To broaden the movement beyond cities, Gandhi sought to bring Hindus and Muslims together, identifying the Khilafat issue as the means to achieve this.

• The First World War ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey, prompting rumors of a harsh peace treaty against the Ottoman Emperor (the Khalifa), the spiritual head of the Islamic world.

• The Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March $1919$ to defend the Khalifa's temporal powers, led by brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali.

• Gandhi saw this as an umbrella to unify the national movement. At the Calcutta Congress session in September $1920$, he convinced others to start a non-cooperation movement in support of both Khilafat and swaraj.

• In his book Hind Swaraj ($1909$), Gandhi argued that British rule was established and maintained only through the cooperation of Indians; if Indians refused to cooperate, British rule would collapse within a year.

• The stages of the Non-Cooperation Movement were planned as follows:

  • Surrender of government-awarded titles.

  • Boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, and legislative councils.

  • Boycott of schools and foreign goods.

  • If the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would follow.

• In December $1920$, at the Nagpur Congress session, the Non-Cooperation programme was formally adopted despite initial internal concerns about boycotting council elections or potential violence.

Strands and Participation in the Non-Cooperation Movement

• The Towns: Middle-class participation was high. Thousands of students and teachers left government schools, and lawyers gave up their practices. Council elections were boycotted, except in Madras where the Justice Party (representing non-Brahmans) participated.

• Economic Impact: Foreign cloth was burnt in bonfires, and liquor shops were picketed. The import of foreign cloth halved between $1921$ and $1922$, with its value dropping from Rs $102$ crore to Rs $57$ crore. Production in Indian textile mills and handlooms increased.

• Challenges in Towns: The movement slowed because Khadi was often more expensive than mill-produced cloth, and the lack of alternative Indian institutions meant students and professionals eventually returned to government jobs and schools.

• The Countryside (Awadh): Led by Baba Ramchandra (a sanyasi and former indentured laborer in Fiji). Peasants fought against exorbitant rents and begar (forced labor without payment). The Oudh Kisan Sabha was established in October $1920$, led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Baba Ramchandra.

• Tribal Rebellion (Gudem Hills, Andhra Pradesh): Forest laws prevented tribals from grazing cattle or collecting fuelwood. Alluri Sitaram Raju, who claimed special powers and was inspired by Gandhi, led a militant guerrilla movement. Unlike Gandhi's philosophy, Raju believed liberation required force. He was executed in $1924$.

• Plantations (Assam): Under the Inland Emigration Act of $1859$, workers could not leave tea gardens without permission. For them, swaraj meant the right to move freely and return to their villages. Thousands left the plantations but were often caught and beaten by police during transit strikes.

The Transition to Civil Disobedience and the Simon Commission

• In February $1922$, Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement following the Chauri Chaura incident, where a peaceful demonstration turned violent.

• Inside Congress, the Swaraj Party was formed by C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru to advocate for participation in provincial council elections. Younger leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru pushed for radical mass agitation and full independence.

• Economic factors in the late $1920s$ included the worldwide depression; agricultural prices fell from $1926$ and collapsed after $1930$, leading to rural turmoil.

• The Simon Commission was constituted in $1928$ by the Tory government to review the constitutional system. It was met with protests and the slogan 'Go back Simon' because it contained no Indian members.

• Viceroy Lord Irwin offered 'dominion status' in October $1929$ and a Round Table Conference, which failed to satisfy radicals.

• At the Lahore Congress in December $1929$, Jawaharlal Nehru presided over the formal demand for 'Purna Swaraj' (Full Independence). $26$ January $1930$ was designated Independence Day.

The Salt March and the Launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement

• Gandhi used salt as a unifying symbol because it was a basic necessity consumed by all. On $31$ January $1930$, he sent a letter to Lord Irwin with $11$ demands, including the abolition of the salt tax.

• The Salt March began after Irwin refused to negotiate. Gandhi and $78$ volunteers marched $240$ miles from Sabarmati to Dandi over $24$ days ($10$ miles per day).

• On $6$ April $1930$, Gandhi reached Dandi and broke the law by manufacturing salt by boiling seawater.

• The Civil Disobedience Movement differed from Non-Cooperation because it encouraged people to actively break colonial laws, not just withdraw cooperation.

• Developments included the boycott of foreign cloth, refusal to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes, and resignation of village officials.

• Government repression followed: Abdul Ghaffar Khan was arrested in April $1930$, and Gandhi was arrested a month later. In Sholapur, workers attacked symbols of British rule. Approximately $100,000$ people were arrested.

• The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on $5$ March $1931$. Gandhi agreed to the second Round Table Conference in London, and the government agreed to release political prisoners. The conference (December $1931$) failed, and Gandhi relaunched the movement in $1932$, though it lost momentum by $1934$.

Participation and Social Perspectives in the Movement

• Rich Peasants: Patidars of Gujarat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh participated to fight high revenue demands. They were disappointed when the movement was called off in $1931$ without revenue revisions.

• Poor Peasants: Interested in 'no rent' campaigns. The Congress was reluctant to support this to avoid alienating rich landlords.

• Business Classes: Formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress ($1920$) and FICCI ($1927$). Led by G. D. Birla and Purshottamdas Thakurdas, they sought protection against imports and an end to colonial economic restrictions.

• Industrial Workers: Participation was limited (mostly in the Nagpur region). Workers in Chotanagpur mines wore Gandhi caps in protest. The Congress avoided integrating specific worker demands to maintain industrialist support.

• Women: Participated in large numbers, picketing and joining marches. However, the Congress and Gandhi still largely viewed women's roles as domestic, keeping their presence symbolic within the organizational hierarchy.

• Heroic Actions: The Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) was founded in $1928$ (Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das, Ajoy Ghosh). Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutta threw a bomb in the Legislative Assembly in April $1929$ with the slogan 'Inquilab Zindabad'.

The Limits of Civil Disobedience: Dalit and Muslim Responses

• Dalit Participation: Many dalit leaders sought political empowerment through separate electorates. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar formed the Depressed Classes Association in $1930$ and clashed with Gandhi at the Round Table Conference.

• Poona Pact ($1932$): After Gandhi's fast unto death against separate electorates, Ambedkar agreed to reserved seats for Depressed Classes within a general electorate.

• Muslim Participation: A sense of alienation grew after the Khilafat movement ended. Many Muslims feared their culture would be submerged under a Hindu majority. Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to compromise on separate electorates for reserved seats in the Central Assembly.

• Sir Muhammad Iqbal ($1930$): Asserted that the units of Indian society are communal (not territorial) and justified the demand for a 'Muslim India within India'.

The Sense of Collective Belonging and Cultural Nationalism

• Nationalism grew through the creation of shared symbols. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote 'Vande Mataram' in the $1870s$ and later included it in the novel Anandamath.

• Abanindranath Tagore painted the iconic image of Bharat Mata in $1905$, depicting her as an ascetic, divine, and spiritual figure.

• The revival of Indian folklore (by Rabindranath Tagore in Bengal and Natesa Sastri in Madras) was seen as essential to restore national identity.

• Flags became symbols of defiance: a tricolour flag was designed during the Swadeshi movement, and Gandhi designed the Swaraj flag in $1921$ featuring a spinning wheel.

• Historians reinterpreted the past to highlight ancient achievements in science, art, and philosophy, countering the British view of Indians as primitive.

The Quit India Movement ($1942$)

• The failure of the Cripps Mission and WWII hardships led to the 'Quit India' movement. The resolution was passed in Wardha on $14$ July $1942$ and endorsed in Bombay on $8$ August $1942$.

• Gandhi gave the call 'Do or Die'.

• It was a mass movement involving students, workers, and leaders like Jayprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Matangini Hazra.

• Despite severe British repression, it marked the final decisive phase of the struggle for independence.