Chapter 20 'Ways of the World'
Outline: The Big Picture: Since World War I: A New Period in World History?
I. The Necessity and Controversies of Historical Segmentation
The division of history into segments is necessary but artificial and often controversial.
A. This issue is notably pronounced in the context of the twentieth century.
B. Fundamental question: Does the twentieth century represent a distinct phase of world history?
Historical textbooks often give this century separate status.
Future generations may view it differently:
a. Time span of 100 years is short in historical context.
b. Current information overload hinders clarity in distinguishing historical trends.
c. Uncertainty exists regarding when or how this period may conclude.
II. Continuities and Changes in the Twentieth Century
The twentieth century encapsulates a blend of the old and the new.
A. The century is characterized by both continuity and change:
World wars emerge from Europe's inability to unify under a single state.
Communist revolutions merge historical elements with emerging ideologies.
B. Distinctive features include:
Disintegration of large empires and emergence of new nation-states.
a. A significant shift against the concept of empire.
b. Over 200 nation-states formed by 2000.
C. Fundamental process includes significant population growth:
The global human population nearly quadrupled from 1900 to 2000, hitting nearly 7 billion.
D. Industrial output saw a fortyfold increase during the twentieth century:
This growth was unprecedented yet based on earlier developments from the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions.
Industrialization spread from the West across various regions.
Human impact on the environment has historical roots but intensified.
E. Globalization has deep historical connections.
III. Examining Global Themes of the Twentieth Century
Part Six examines themes shaping twentieth-century history.
A. Chapters focus on three major regions:
The Western world
The communist world
The Third World
Histories of these worlds are often interconnected.
B. A larger narrative involves globalization as discussed in Chapter 23.
IV. Future perceptions of the twentieth century remain uncertain.
Chapter 20: Collapse at the Center: World War, Depression, and the Rebalancing of Global Power (1914–1970s)
Chapter Learning Objectives
To understand Europe's history from 1914 to the 1970s as an interconnected organic whole.
To assess the impacts of nationalism and colonialism in Europe and Japan.
To increase awareness of the effects of both world wars.
To encourage understanding of the allure of totalitarian movements in the twentieth century.
Chapter Outline
I. Opening Vignette
The last veterans of World War I are passing away:
A. There exists disappointment as it did not fulfill its promise as “the war to end all wars.”
B. The war resulted in cessation of long-standing hostilities between major European states.
C. World War I (1914-1918) signaled a new historical phase:
Characterized as “a European civil war with a global reach.”
Western Europe faced self-destruction from 1914 until WWII.
Despite this, Europe exhibited surprising recovery between 1950 and 2000, albeit without its former empires and not as the core of Western civilization.
II. The First World War: European Civilization in Crisis, 1914-1918
By 1900, most people of European descent exerted control over the majority of the world.
A. Modernization and European ascendancy escalated traditional rivalries among states:
Italy and Germany unified around 1870.
The balance of power around 1900 consisted of two main rival alliances:
a. Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
b. Triple Entente: Russia, France, and Britain.
B. WWI was triggered by a minor incident amplified by these alliances:
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914.
Austria-Hungary sought to suppress Serbian nationalism, supported by Russia and its allies.
General war ensued in August 1914.
Contributing factors included popular nationalism, industrialized militarism, and colonial empires.
C. Legacies of the Great War:
Despite initial expectations of a short war, it became protracted with Germany’s defeat in November 1918.
Characterized as a war of attrition with trench warfare and total war:
a. Full population mobilization from all countries involved.
b. Expanded government powers and extensive propaganda campaigns.
c. Increased labor contributions from women.
d. Acceptance of sacrifices by labor unions.
Resulted in immense disillusionment among intellectuals questioning Enlightenment values and the superiority of Western science.
Promoted social changes:
a. Casualties contributed to social mobility.
b. Women gained voting rights and challenged sexual conventions.
c. New consumerism began to flourish alongside new media.
Geopolitical restructuring of Central Europe:
a. Formation of independent states like Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia alongside ethnic minority issues.
b. Triggered the Russian Bolshevik revolution in 1917.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) set the stage for WWII:
a. Germany lost its colonies and 15% of European territory.
b. Faced heavy reparations and military restrictions.
c. Imposed sole responsibility for the war on Germany, leading to widespread resentment.
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire:
a. Resulted in the Armenian genocide.
b. New Arab states were established amid conflicting promises.
In Asia and Africa, military service led to greater political consciousness:
a. Promises for self-governance in India in exchange for war assistance.
b. Japan strengthened militarily, asserting authority over German territories in China, influencing some to adopt Soviet communism.
The emergence of the United States as a global power:
a. US manpower was vital to Germany’s defeat.
b. US emerged as Europe’s creditor and gained respect for Wilsonian ideals.
III. Capitalism Unraveling: The Great Depression
The Great Depression marked the most significant postwar transformation:
A. The event raised alarm over the viability of Europe’s economy and industrial capitalism.
Instigated concerns over materialism and social inequality.
B. The Great Depression began in 1929:
Stock price collapses led to loss of fortunes.
World trade decreased by 62% within a few years.
Unemployment rates soared, peaking at 30% in Germany and the US by 1932.
C. Contributing factors included:
Overproduction in American factories and farms outpaced sales.
Depressed European economies post-WWI were unable to buy American goods.
Speculation inflated stock prices unsustainably.
D. The Great Depression became a global issue due to worldwide empires:
Countries dependent on single exports were severely affected.
E. Governments were challenged to respond:
Capitalist governments believed in self-regulating economies, yet the Soviet economy thrived throughout the 1930s.
Expansion of democratic socialism in response to economic anxiety.
The New Deal (1933-1942) in the US included significant reforms initiated by Franklin Roosevelt, with policies inspired by economist John Maynard Keynes, reshaping the government's role in the economy.
While the New Deal improved conditions during WWII, it was insufficient on its own.
Nazi Germany and Japan effectively navigated the effects of the Depression.
IV. Democracy Denied: Examining Italy, Germany, and Japan
Democratic ideals faced significant opposition post-WWI:
A. The rise of communist threats in the wake of the war galvanized reactions from victorious nations.
Authoritarian, nationalist regimes emerged as dominant forces across WWII.
The Fascist alliance formed between Italy, Germany, and Japan by 1936-37.
B. The Rise of Fascism in Europe:
Fascism characterized by intense nationalism and anti-communism emerged from the turmoil of WWII.
Fascism sought to mobilize all classes under a single ideology:
a. Significant rejection of individualism and parliamentary democracy.
b. Emphasized traditional values and heroic leadership.
C. The Italian experience:
Benito Mussolini’s rise utilized violence through the 'Black Shirts.'
Mussolini promoted Catholic values and militarism, invading Ethiopia aiming for empire.
D. The German experience under Nazism:
Adolf Hitler's ideology centered on Aryan supremacy; exploited sentiments of betrayal post-WWI.
Utilized propaganda and violence to eradicate opponents; rapidly gained support through economic recovery.
Established totalitarian rule marked by police powers and severe anti-Semitic policies.
E. Japanese Authoritarianism:
Japan's path to power included military expansion and authoritarian governance, though it experienced a lesser degree of repression compared to their European counterparts.
Economic turmoil led to greater military presence in politics alongside expanding territorial ambitions.
V. A Second World War
WWII was characterized by a more significant global impact than WWI:
A. Independent origins unfold in both Asia and Europe stemming from national discontent.
B. Japan's imperial aspirations clashed with Western interests:
Initial expansion after the Russo-Japanese War led towards aggressive incursions into China.
Major conflicts, including the attack on Pearl Harbor, marked Japan's assertiveness.
The resultant war unified Asian and European theaters into global conflict.
C. Europe's war origins rooted in Nazi ambitions:
Aggressive militarization and expansionist strategies led to conflicts with neighboring states.
Germany's blitzkrieg tactics succeeded initially but ultimately encountered resistance.
D. Outcomes of WWII:
Approximately 60 million casualties, primarily among civilians; pervasive destruction blurred lines between civil and military targets.
The ideological and cultural repercussions became apparent across the globe.
Concentration camps led to the Holocaust, eradicating 6 million Jews alongside other marginalized groups.
Postwar landscapes left Europe impoverished and incapable of maintaining its global authority.
The emergence of the US as a global superpower reshaped international relations.
VI. The Recovery of Europe
The latter part of the twentieth century witnessed Europe's recovery:
A. Reconstruction led to economic revival and democratic reformation.
B. The US played a pivotal role in aiding European recovery through the Marshall Plan:
Fostered economic cooperation and solidified US-European relations.
Established the groundwork for the European Economic Community and subsequent EU development.
C. Japan's recovery mirrored Europe's, aided by US strategies and industrial expansion.
VII. Reflections: Learning from History
Philosopher Santayana famously stated, “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.”
A. Historians depict caution when deriving lessons from history due to its complexity.
B. The uniqueness of the twentieth-century wars emphasizes unexpected consequences.
Chapter Questions
Questions elaborate upon themes, issues, and historical implications discussed throughout the text, guiding in-depth discussions and reflections.
Glossary of Key Terms
fascism: Political ideology marked by intense nationalism and authoritarianism; derived from the fasces, symbol of Italian magistrates.
Great Depression: Worldwide economic downturn commencing in 1929 linked to the stock market crash, lasting until the onset of WWII.
Holocaust: Genocide wherein millions of Jews and others deemed undesirable were murdered under the Nazi regime.
Marshall Plan: Major US initiative for European recovery post-WWII, spearheaded by Secretary of State George Marshall in 1947.
NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization, military alliance founded in 1949 for collective security against Soviet aggression.