AP World History Modern - Social Interactions and Organization (1450-1750)

Treatment of Non-Muslims in Empires

Ottoman Empire: Organized religious minorities into millets (nations), such as Jewish, Armenian Christian, and Greek Orthodox Christian.
Mughal India: Akbar the Great was tolerant and abolished the jizya tax for Hindus. Aurangzeb imposed Sharia law and persecuted Sikhs.

Race-Based Hierarchies due to Colonization

Qing Dynasty in China: The Manchus stratified society according to race, forcing Chinese subjects to wear certain clothes and hairstyles.
Americas: Colonization led to mixed populations. Mestizos/métis were offspring of Europeans and Native Americans. Mulattos were of European and African descent. Zambo described someone of mixed African and Native American heritage. Creole originally described a person of European descent born in the colonies.
Social Hierarchy in Latin America & Caribbean: Peninsulares (Spanish-born) and criollos (European descent born in Americas) were at the top. Those of mixed blood and native ancestry were lower, and enslaved people at the bottom. Spanish created República de Indios to govern natives.

Women in Power and Society

Women held individual political power (e.g., Cleopatra, Elizabeth I, Catherine the Great), but this didn't always improve conditions for women generally.
Matrilineal societies in West Africa afforded women more respect.
Sexism and inequality were norms in most times and places.

Women and Colonization

Local women played crucial roles in encounters between colonizers and local populations, such as Doña Marina (Malinche) with Cortés and Pocahontas with English colonists.

Restructuring of Gender and Family Relations

Europe: Upper-class women gained education and became active in intellectual life; middle-class women gained economic roles. Women had more control over marriage, divorce, childbirth, and inheritance. Family sizes decreased in urban settings.
Europe: Catholic nuns achieved high education, and Protestantism emphasized literacy for women. Some women became painters, writers, philosophers, and scientists, but were excluded from university faculty. Important monarchs included Isabella, Elizabeth I, Maria Theresa, and Catherine the Great.
Europe: Women remained legally and economically subservient. High death rates during childbirth. Approximately 75% of witch hunt victims were women. Religious views reinforced female inferiority. Enlightenment thinkers rarely advocated for women's equality.
Muslim World: Elite women played influential informal roles (e.g., sultan's mother in Ottoman Turkey). Harems were complex social networks, not just for sexual purposes. Polygamy was less common than believed.
Muslim World: Seclusion of women was practiced. Women had property rights but limited marital and divorce rights. Their court testimony was not equal to men's.
India: Muslim women had more rights than Hindu women, who faced the caste system and sati. Seclusion applied to both Muslim and high-caste Hindu women. Sharia law imposed restrictions on Hindu women.
China: Foot binding became more widespread. Confucian doctrine supported secondary status for women.
Japan: Tokugawa shogunate placed restrictions on women, especially samurai class. Women had little property authority and less education, though artistic pursuits were encouraged. Girl children were less valued.
Africa: Matrilineal societies accepted female leadership (e.g., Queen Nzinga). Islam's presence led to more veiling and seclusion. Slave trades broke apart families.
Native Americans: Some societies (e.g., Iroquois, Cherokee) allowed women political influence.