59BC - the consulship of Julius and Caesar

Overview of Events

  • In 59 BC Caesar had official power, and from the moment he entered the consulship he set to work

  • First, he passed a land bill to provide settlements and farms for Pompey’s veterans*, and a bill giving state land to the urban poor (lex Campania)

  • Next, a bill ratified Pompey’s arrangements in the East

  • Third measure secured what Crassus wanted for the equites – revision of the tax contracts for Asia

  • Next, Caesar looked to his own interests – he wanted the provinces of Gaul and Illyricum for 5 years, which he obtained** by the lex Vatinia

  • Cicero wanted to continue concordia ordinum, harmony between Senate and equites, to preserve the Republic in which he would play a leading advisory role to Pompey*

  • In an attempt to appease the optimates, he did not support Pompey’s (reasonable) demands for settlement of eastern acta and land for veterans

  • Cicero rejected Caesar’s offer to join the triumvirs

  • The formation of the triumvirate was devastating for Cicero:

    • He had never been on friendly terms with Crassus

    • He had offended Pompey

    • He rejected Caesar’s offer of alliance

    • He believed only the path upholding tradition and senatorial authority was acceptable****

Specialist Vocabulary

  • optimates

  • populares

  • nobiles

  • veto

  • imperium

  • fasces*

  • lictors

  • auspices

59 BC: C. Julius Caesar & M. Calpurnius Bibulus

  • All optimates’ hopes* rested on Bibulus, Cato’s son-in-law; Cato even ignored Bibulus’ bribery

  • Bibulus attempted to block all of Caesar’s legislation

  • Cato did all he could to oppose Caesar, and many tribunes were ready to fight for the nobiles

  • Caesar initially adopted a conciliatory attitude towards the Senate, presenting a moderate bill** to provide land for Pompey’s veterans

  • The optimates completely blocked the bill

Caesar Turns to the People

  • Faced with prolonged systematic obstruction, Caesar presented his land bill to the people’s assembly

  • Bibulus, along with Cato and some tribunes, attempted to block the bill using their veto*

  • Caesar realised he could only carry the bill in open defiance of the law

  • He threatened to use force*

  • He called on Pompey and Crassus for approval*

  • Pompey stated:

    “If it is a question of swords (he could produce a sword and a shield as well)” (Plutarch)

Bibulus’ Reaction to Caesar’s Actions

  • Bibulus, Cato and Lucullus were threatened

  • The crowd broke the fasces* of Bibulus’ lictors*

  • Bibulus proclaimed the rest of the year a “sacred period”

  • Caesar ignored this and declared the bill passed

  • Bibulus withdrew to his house for the remainder of his term, claiming that as augur he was taking the auspices

  • This made the rest of Caesar’s legislation technically invalid

Fasces / Lictors

  • Fasces – bundles of rods carried by a magistrate’s lictors as an emblem of imperium

  • Lictor – attendant/bodyguard to a magistrate with imperium

    • A consul had 12 lictors, each carrying fasces

Caesar Governs Alone

“Caesar governed alone, and did very much as he pleased” — Suetonius

  • Land for Pompey’s veterans* and some urban plebeians was purchased with funds from Pompey’s eastern conquests

  • Lex Campania – a harsher law:

    • Public land in Campania divided and distributed

    • Predominantly to the urban poor and some of Pompey’s veterans

  • Pompey appeared upset with the way the land bill was passed

Use of a Tribune

  • Caesar used the tribune Vatinius to fulfil the rest of his promises to Pompey and Crassus

  • Pompey’s eastern settlement was ratified

  • Equites received a rebate of one-third of their tax contract

  • Vatinius also acted on Caesar’s behalf

Lex Vatinia

  • Tribune Vatinius proposed the bill to the people’s assembly:

    • Caesar to receive Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum

    • Term of 5 years

    • Command of 3 legions

  • Measures passed

Opposition to the “Monster”

  • Caesar continued legislating throughout 59 BC with little regard for the constitution

  • He used the threat of force to suppress opposition

  • Passed lex Iulia de repetundis:

    • Restricted exploitation of provinces

    • Required strict accounting

    • Limited gifts*

  • Resentment against the three increased**

  • Cicero refused to join the coalition and rejected Caesar’s offers***

Caesar About to Leave Rome

  • Caesar wanted Rome secure before leaving for his province in 58 BC

  • The triumvirs secured the election of favourable consuls for 58:

    • L. Calpurnius Piso*

    • A. Gabinius

  • Caesar also needed a friendly tribune:

    • To monitor Pompey

    • To remove Cicero and Cato from Rome

Significance of Caesar’s Consulship

  • Caesar’s use of force and disregard for his colleague’s legal obstruction made his legislation technically illegal

  • Opponents now had a legitimate excuse to threaten prosecution once he became a private citizen

  • It became imperative that Caesar retain imperium as either consul or proconsul

Weaknesses in the Coalition

  • Lex Campania created more resentment than any other measure

  • Pompey:

    • Lost popularity with both people and optimates

    • Found this humiliating and became politically vulnerable

  • Cracks in the coalition were visible early:

    • Pompey’s and Crassus’ aims were short-term

    • Once satisfied, hostility between them resurfaced

    • Tensions worsened after Caesar left Italy

Next Episode: 58 BC

  • Who will be the “friendly tribune” to:

    • Control Pompey

    • Remove Cicero and Cato from Rome?

Claudius → Clodius

  • Patrician → Plebeian

In 59 BC, during Caesar’s and Bibulus’ consulship, religious objections were nullified by Caesar and Pompey, who were pontifex maximus and augur respectively.
Clodius became plebeian and shortly afterwards stood for the office of tribune of the plebs.